Epidemiology of Brazilian spotted fever in the Atlantic Forest, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil

The tick-borne bacterium Rickettsia rickettsii is the aetiological agent of Brazilian spotted fever (BSF). The present study evaluated tick infestations on wild and domestic animals, and the rickettsial infection in these animals and their ticks in 7 forest areas adjacent to human communities in the Sao Paulo Metropolitan Area (SPMA). The results were compared to ecological traits of each sampled area. Two main tick species, Amblyomma aureolatum and Rhipicephalus sanguineus, were collected from dogs. The major ticks found on small mammals and birds were Ixodes loricatus and Amblyomma longirostre, respectively. Both anti-R. rickettsii antibodies and R. rickettsii-infected ticks were detected on dogs from only 2 areas in the southern part of the SPMA, which were considered to be endemic for BSF; the remaining 5 areas were considered to be non-endemic. Ecologically, the BSF-endemic areas clearly differed from the non-endemic areas by the presence of significantly more degraded forest patches in the former. The present results corroborate historical observations that have indicated that all human cases of BSF in the SPMA were contracted in the southern part of this metropolitan area. However, not all forest patches in the southern part of the SPMA were shown to be associated with BSF endemism.

Enzyme Microheterogeneous Hydration and Stabilization in Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

Supercritical carbon dioxide is a promising green-chemistry solvent for many enzyme-catalyzed chemical reactions, yet the striking stability of some enzymes in such unconventional environments is not well understood. Here, we investigate the stabilization of the Candida antarctica Lipase B (CALB) in supercritical carbon dioxide-water biphasic systems using molecular dynamics simulations. The preservation of the enzyme structure and optimal activity depend on the presence of small amounts of water in the supercritical dispersing medium. When the protein is at least partially hydrated, water molecules bind to specific sites on the enzyme surface and prevent carbon dioxide from penetrating its catalytic core. Strikingly, water and supercritical carbon dioxide cover the protein surface quite heterogeneously. In the first solvation layer, the hydrophilic residues at the surface of the protein are able to pin down patches of water, whereas carbon dioxide solvates preferentially hydrophobic surface residues. In the outer solvation shells, water molecules tend to cluster predominantly on top of the larger water patches of the first solvation layer instead of spreading evenly around the remainder of the protein surface. For CALB, this exposes the substrate-binding region of the enzyme to carbon dioxide, possibly facilitating diffusion of nonpolar substrates into the catalytic funnel. Therefore, by means of microheterogeneous solvation, enhanced accessibility of hydrophobic substrates to the active site can be achieved, while preserving the functional structure of the enzyme. Our results provide a molecular picture on the nature of the stability of proteins in nonaqueous media.

The importance of landscape structure for seed dispersal in rain forest fragments

Questions What are the main features of the seed rain in a fragmented Atlantic forest landscape? Can seed rain species attributes (life form, dispersal mode, successional status) relate to the spatial arrangement (size and number of fragments, edge density and presence of corridor) of forest fragments in the landscape? How does the rain forest landscape structure affect the seed rain? Location Atlantic rainforest, Sao Paulo State, Southeastern Brazil. Methods Seed rain samples were collected monthly throughout 1yr, counted, identified and classified according to species dispersal mode, successional status and life form. Seed rain composition was compared with woody species near the seed traps. Relationships between seed rain composition and landscape spatial arrangement (fragment area, presence of corridor, number of fragments in the surroundings, proximity of fragments, and edge density) were tested using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). Results We collected 20142 seeds belonging to 115 taxa, most of them early successional and anemochorous trees. In general, the seed rain had a species composition distinct from that of the nearby forest tree community. Small isolated fragments contained more seeds, mainly of anemochorous, epiphytic and early-successional species; large fragments showed higher association with zoochorous and late-successional species compared to small fragments. The CCA significantly distinguished the species dispersal mode according to fragment size and isolation, anemochorous species being associated to small and isolated fragments, and zoochorous species to larger areas and fragment aggregation. Nevertheless, a gradient driven by proximity (PROX) and edge density (ED) segregated lianas (in the positive extremity), early successional and epiphyte species (in the negative end); large fragments were positively associated to PROX and ED. Conclusions The results highlight the importance of the size and spatial arrangement of forest patches to promote habitat connectivity and improve the flux of animal-dispersed seeds. Landscape structure controls seed fluxes and affects plant dispersal capacity, potentially influencing the composition and structure of forest fragments. The seed rain composition may be used to assess the effects of landscape spatial structure on plant assemblages, and provide relevant information for biodiversity conservation.

Comparing the establishment of an invasive and an endemic palm species in the Atlantic rainforest

Background: Biological invasions are one of the major causes of biodiversity loss, yet remain rather understudied in tropical environments. The Australian palm tree Archontophoenix cunninghamiana was introduced into Brazil for ornamental purposes, but has become an invasive species in urban and suburban forest patches. The substitution of A. cunninghamiana by the native palm Euterpe edulis has been proposed as a management action. Aims: We aimed to evaluate the regeneration potential of these two palm species in an Atlantic forest remnant in south-eastern Brazil where both species occur. Methods: We compared seedling establishment and seed longevity of both species through seed sowing, and also measured the contribution of A. cunninghamiana to the local seed rain and seed bank. Results: Nearly half of the non-anemochoric diaspores collected from the seed rain belonged to A. cunninghamiana, which represented a high propagule pressure in the community. The distribution of the alien palm seeds in the seed rain correlated with the distribution of nearby young and adult individuals inside the forest. Neither A. cunninghamiana nor E. edulis appeared to have a persistent seed bank in a burial experiment; seedling survival experiments suggested a much better performance for A. cunninghamiana, which had a survival rate of ca. 30% compared with a rate of only 3.5% for E. edulis. Conclusions: The results suggest a higher regeneration capacity for the alien palm over the native species when co-occurring in a forest fragment. Management actions are thus proposed to reduce a potential biological invasion process.

Descriptions of Thereza murutinga sp. nov. and Pristocnemis caipira sp. nov., and new records of Caelopyginae (Opiliones: Laniatores: Gonyleptidae)

Two new species of Caelopyginae are described: Pristocnemis caipira sp. nov. from Parque Nacional da Serra da Canastra, Minas Gerais, Brazil, and Thereza murutinga sp. nov., from Parati, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Pristocnemis caipira sp. nov. is diagnosed by shallow grooves on the dorsal scutum, a lower number of tarsal segments, presence of a spine on the anal operculum, large, pointed tubercles on the lateral margins of the dorsal scutum, and an absence of white patches on the dorsal scutum. Thereza murutinga sp. nov. is diagnosed by the combination of the following characters: incomplete median longitudinal groove on area III and absent on area II, prosoma much smaller than opisthosoma, and a large white patch covering the prosoma and whole areas of the opisthosomal scutum. A cladistic analysis including the two new species was performed to investigate their relationship within the subfamily. We obtained 927 trees of 185 steps (CI=0.4, RI=0.74), which corroborated the generic assignments of the new species, but infrageneric relationships remained unsolved. In addition, male genitalia of Ampheres luteus (Giltay) and genera Pristocnemis and Thereza are redescribed, new distribution records for Caelopyginae species are presented, and biogeographical implications are discussed.

Cross-taxon congruence of alpha and beta diversity among five leaf litter arthropod groups in Colombia

In this study alpha and beta diversity patterns of five leaf litter arthropod groups (ants, predatory ants, oribatid mites, spiders and other arachnids) were described and compared in 39 sampling patches of a transformed landscape in southwestern Colombia, that represented five vegetation types: secondary forest, riparian forest, giant bamboo forest, pasture and sugarcane crop. It was also assessed whether some taxa could be used as diversity surrogates. A total of 6,765 individuals grouped in 290 morphospecies were collected. Species richness in all groups was lower in highly transformed vegetation types (pasture, sugarcane crop) than in native ones (forests). In contrast, there were no clear tendencies of beta diversity among vegetation types. Considering sampling patches, 0.1-42% of the variation in alpha diversity of one taxonomic group could be explained from the alpha diversity of another, and 0.2-33% of the variation of beta diversity of a given taxon was explained by that in other groups. Contrary to recent findings, we concluded that patterns of alpha diversity are more congruent than patterns of beta diversity. This fact could be attributed to a sampling effect that promotes congruence in alpha diversity and to a lack of a clear regional ecological gradient that could promote congruent patterns of beta diversity. We did not find evidence for an ideal diversity surrogate although diversity patterns of predatory ants had the greatest congruencies. These results support earlier multi-taxon evaluations in that conservation planning should not be based on only one leaf litter arthropod group.

Effect of parametric uncertainties on the performance of a piezoelectric energy harvesting device

The use of piezoelectric materials for the development of electromechanical devices for the harvesting or scavenging of ambient vibrations has been extensively studied over the last decade. The energy conversion from mechanical (vibratory) to electrical energy is provided by the electromechanical coupling between mechanical strains/stresses and electric charges/voltages in the piezoelectric material. The majority of the studies found in the open literature present a tip-mass cantilever piezoelectric device tuned on the operating frequency. Although recent results show that these devices can be quite effective for harvesting small amounts of electrical energy, little has been published on the robustness of these devices or on the effect of parametric uncertainties on the energy harvested. This work focuses on a cantilever plate with bonded piezoelectric patches and a tip-mass serving as an energy harvesting device. The rectifier and storage electric circuit was replaced by a resistive circuit (R). In addition, an alternative to improve the harvesting performance by adding an inductance in series to the harvesting circuit, thus leading to a resonant circuit (RL), is considered. A coupled finite element model leading to mechanical (displacements) and electrical (charges at electrodes) degrees of freedom is considered. An analysis of the effect of parametric uncertainties of the device on the electric output is performed. Piezoelectric and dielectric constants of the piezoelectric active layers and electric circuit equivalent inductance are considered as stochastic parameters. Mean and confidence intervals of the electric output are evaluated.

Factors structuring Fucus communities at open and complex coastlines in the Baltic Sea

This thesis deals with physical factors and biological interactions affecting the distribution of two fucoid species, Fucus vesiculosus and F. serratus, in the Baltic Sea. Studies have been carried out in two quite different environments: an archipelago, and an open rocky coast. The archipelago has an extremely long coastline with a heterogeneous submerged landscape of different substrate types, slopes, water qualities, and degrees of wave exposure. The factors influencing F. vesiculosus distribution, morphology and epiphyte composition were studied in the Stockholm archipelago using field surveys and spatial modelling in Geographic information systems (GIS). A GIS-method to estimate wave exposure was developed and validated by comparing the result to an index based on vertical zonation of lichens. Wave exposure was considered an important factor for predicting the distribution of F. vesiculosus by its ability to clean hard surfaces from silt, and a predictive model was constructed based on the information of wave exposure and slope of the shore. It is suggested that the lower distribution boundary of attached F. vesiculosus is set by sediment in sheltered parts of the archipelago, and by light availability in highly wave exposed parts. The morphology of F. vesiculosus was studied over a wave exposure gradient, and several characters responded in accordance with earlier studies. However, when separating effects of wave exposure from effects of other confounding water property parameters, only thallus width was significantly different. Several water property parameters were shown to be correlated with wave exposure in the Stockholm archipelago, and the mechanism responsible for the effects on F. vesiculosus morphology is discussed. The composition of epiphytes on F. vesiculosus varied over a wave exposure gradient with a positive correlation to Elachista fucicola, and a negative to Chorda filum. At an open coast the physical environment is much less heterogeneous compared to an archipelago. The distributions of F. vesiculosus, F. serratus, turf-forming algae, and the seafloor substrate, were surveyed along the open coasts of Öland and Gotland. Turf-forming algae dominated all hard substrates in the area, and Polysiphonia fucoides was most abundant. At the Gotland coast F. vesiculosus was less abundant than at the Öland coast, and F. serratus occurred only in the southern-most part. Fucus serratus was increasingly more common towards south which was interpreted as an effect mainly of the Baltic salinity gradient, or the variation of salinity that has occurred in the past. The effects of turf-forming algae and sediment on F. serratus recruitment at 7 m depth off the Öland east coast were studied in the field, and by laboratory experiments. Almost no recruits were found in the algal turf outside the F. serratus patches. More fine sediment was found in the turf than in the F. serratus patches, suggesting that the turf accumulates sediment by decreasing resuspension. Both filamentous algae and sediment decreased the attachment ability of F. serratus zygotes and survival of recruits, and sediment had the strongest effect. It is therefore suggested that F. serratus has difficulties recruiting outside its patches, and that these difficulties are enforced by the eutrophication of the Baltic Sea, which has favoured growth of filamentous algae and increased sedimentation. An overall conclusion is that Fucus distribution is affected by large-scale-factors, such as the eutrophication and salinity changes of the Baltic Sea, as well as by small-scale variation in wave exposure, substrate and slope, and by surface competition with neighbouring species.

Biogenic habitat structure provided by temperate macroalgae change along a latitudinal gradient in ocean climate

[EN] Global warming is affecting all major ecosystems, including temperate reefs where canopy-forming seaweeds provide biogenic habitat. In contrast to the rapidly growing recognition of how climate affects the performance and distribution of individuals and populations, relatively little is known about possible links between climate and biogenic habitat structure. We examined the relationship between several ocean temperature characteristics, expressed on time-scales of days, months and years, on habitat patch characteristics on 24 subtidal temperate reefs along a latitudinal gradient (Western Australia; ca 34 to 27º S). Significant climate related variation in habitat structure was observed, even though the landscape cover of kelp and fucalean canopies did not change across the climate gradient: monospecific patches of kelp became increasingly dominant in warmer climates, at the expense of mixed kelp-fucalean canopies. The decline in mixed canopies was associated with an increase in the abundance of Sargassum spp., replacing a more diverse canopy assemblage of Scytothalia doryocarpa and several other large fucoids. There were no observed differences in the proportion of open gaps or gap characteristics. These habitat changes were closely related to patterns in minimum temperatures and temperature thresholds (days > 20 °C), presumably because temperate algae require cool periods for successful reproduction and recruitment (even if the adults can survive warmer temperatures). Although the observed habitat variation may appear subtle, similar structural differences have been linked to a range of effects on canopy-associated organisms through the provision of habitat and ecosystem engineering. Consequently, our study suggests that the magnitude of projected temperature increase is likely to cause changes in habitat structure and thereby indirectly affect numerous habitat-dependent plants and animals

Consequences of plant population size for pollinator visitation and plant reproductive success

Habitat loss and fragmentation have a prominent role in determining the size of plant populations, and can affect plant-pollinator interactions. It is hypothesized that in small plant populations the ability to set seeds can be reduced due to limited pollination services, since individuals in small populations can receive less quantity or quality of visits. In this study, I investigated the effect of population size on plant reproductive success and insect visitation in 8 populations of two common species in the island of Lesvos, Greece (Mediterranean Sea), Echium plantagineum and Ballota acetabulosa, and of a rare perennial shrub endemic to north-central Italy, Ononis masquillierii. All the three species depended on insect pollinators for sexual reproduction. For each species, pollen limitation was present in all or nearly all populations, but the relationship between pollen limitation and population size was only present in Ononis masquillierii. However, in Echium plantagineum, significant relationships between both open-pollinated and handcrossed-pollinated seed sets and population size were found, being small populations comparatively less productive than large ones. Additionally, for this species, livestock grazing intensity was greater for small populations and for sparse patches, and had a negative influence on productivity of the remnant plants. Both Echium plantagineum and Ballota acetabulosa attracted a great number of insects, representing a wide spectrum of pollinators, thereby can be considered as generalist species. For Ballota acetabulosa, the most important pollinators were megachilid female bees, and insect diversity didn’t decrease with decreasing plant population size. By contrast, Ononis masquillierii plants generally received few visits, with flowers specialized on small bees (Lasioglossum spp.), representing the most important insect guild. In Echium plantagineum and Ballota acetabulosa, plants in small and large populations received the same amount of visits per flower, and no differences in the number of intraplant visited flowers were detected. On the contrary, large Ononis populations supported higher amounts of pollinators than small ones. At patch level, high Echium flower density was associated with more and higher quality pollinators. My results indicate that small populations were not subject to reduced pollination services than large ones in Echium plantagineum and Ballota acetabulosa, and suggest that grazing and resource limitation could have a major impact on population fitness in Echium plantagineum. The absence of any size effects in these two species can be explained in the light of their high local abundance, wide habitat specificity, and ability to compete with other co-flowering species for pollinators. By contrast, size represents a key characteristic for both pollination and reproduction in Ononis masquillierii populations, as an increase in size could mitigate the negative effects coming from the disadvantageous reproductive traits of the species. Finally, the widespread occurrence of pollen limitation in the three species may be the result of 1) an ongoing weakening or disruption of plantpollinator interactions derived from ecological perturbations, 2) an adaptive equilibrium in response to stochastic processes, and 3) the presence of unfavourable reproductive traits (for Ononis masquillierii).

Ricostruzione degli sforzi in elementi finiti di piastra

Nell’ambito dell’analisi computazionale delle strutture il metodo degli elementi finiti è probabilmente uno dei metodi numerici più efficaci ed impiegati. La semplicità dell’idea di base del metodo e la relativa facilità con cui può essere implementato in codici di calcolo hanno reso possibile l’applicazione di questa tecnica computazionale in diversi settori, non solo dell’ingegneria strutturale, ma in generale della matematica applicata. Ma, nonostante il livello raggiunto dalle tecnologie ad elementi finiti sia già abbastanza elevato, per alcune applicazioni tipiche dell’ingegneria strutturale (problemi bidimensionali, analisi di lastre inflesse) le prestazioni fornite dagli elementi usualmente utilizzati, ovvero gli elementi di tipo compatibile, sono in effetti poco soddisfacenti. Vengono in aiuto perciò gli elementi finiti basati su formulazioni miste che da un lato presentano una più complessa formulazione, ma dall’altro consentono di prevenire alcuni problemi ricorrenti quali per esempio il fenomeno dello shear locking. Indipendentemente dai tipi di elementi finiti utilizzati, le quantità di interesse nell’ambito dell’ingegneria non sono gli spostamenti ma gli sforzi o più in generale le quantità derivate dagli spostamenti. Mentre i primi sono molto accurati, i secondi risultano discontinui e di qualità scadente. A valle di un calcolo FEM, negli ultimi anni, hanno preso piede procedure di post-processing in grado, partendo dalla soluzione agli elementi finiti, di ricostruire lo sforzo all’interno di patch di elementi rendendo quest’ultimo più accurato. Tali procedure prendono il nome di Procedure di Ricostruzione (Recovery Based Approaches). Le procedure di ricostruzione qui utilizzate risultano essere la REP (Recovery by Equilibrium in Patches) e la RCP (Recovery by Compatibility in Patches). L’obbiettivo che ci si prefigge in questo lavoro è quello di applicare le procedure di ricostruzione ad un esempio di piastra, discretizzato con vari tipi di elementi finiti, mettendone in luce i vantaggi in termini di migliore accurattezza e di maggiore convergenza.

Active fibre-reinforced composites with embedded shape memory alloys

This dissertation concerns active fibre-reinforced composites with embedded shape memory alloy wires. The structural application of active materials allows to develop adaptive structures which actively respond to changes in the environment, such as morphing structures, self-healing structures and power harvesting devices. In particular, shape memory alloy actuators integrated within a composite actively control the structural shape or stiffness, thus influencing the composite static and dynamic properties. Envisaged applications include, among others, the prevention of thermal buckling of the outer skin of air vehicles, shape changes in panels for improved aerodynamic characteristics and the deployment of large space structures. The study and design of active composites is a complex and multidisciplinary topic, requiring in-depth understanding of both the coupled behaviour of active materials and the interaction between the different composite constituents. Both fibre-reinforced composites and shape memory alloys are extremely active research topics, whose modelling and experimental characterisation still present a number of open problems. Thus, while this dissertation focuses on active composites, some of the research results presented here can be usefully applied to traditional fibre-reinforced composites or other shape memory alloy applications. The dissertation is composed of four chapters. In the first chapter, active fibre-reinforced composites are introduced by giving an overview of the most common choices available for the reinforcement, matrix and production process, together with a brief introduction and classification of active materials. The second chapter presents a number of original contributions regarding the modelling of fibre-reinforced composites. Different two-dimensional laminate theories are derived from a parent three-dimensional theory, introducing a procedure for the a posteriori reconstruction of transverse stresses along the laminate thickness. Accurate through the thickness stresses are crucial for the composite modelling as they are responsible for some common failure mechanisms. A new finite element based on the First-order Shear Deformation Theory and a hybrid stress approach is proposed for the numerical solution of the two-dimensional laminate problem. The element is simple and computationally efficient. The transverse stresses through the laminate thickness are reconstructed starting from a general finite element solution. A two stages procedure is devised, based on Recovery by Compatibility in Patches and three-dimensional equilibrium. Finally, the determination of the elastic parameters of laminated structures via numerical-experimental Bayesian techniques is investigated. Two different estimators are analysed and compared, leading to the definition of an alternative procedure to improve convergence of the estimation process. The third chapter focuses on shape memory alloys, describing their properties and applications. A number of constitutive models proposed in the literature, both one-dimensional and three-dimensional, are critically discussed and compared, underlining their potential and limitations, which are mainly related to the definition of the phase diagram and the choice of internal variables. Some new experimental results on shape memory alloy material characterisation are also presented. These experimental observations display some features of the shape memory alloy behaviour which are generally not included in the current models, thus some ideas are proposed for the development of a new constitutive model. The fourth chapter, finally, focuses on active composite plates with embedded shape memory alloy wires. A number of di®erent approaches can be used to predict the behaviour of such structures, each model presenting different advantages and drawbacks related to complexity and versatility. A simple model able to describe both shape and stiffness control configurations within the same context is proposed and implemented. The model is then validated considering the shape control configuration, which is the most sensitive to model parameters. The experimental work is divided in two parts. In the first part, an active composite is built by gluing prestrained shape memory alloy wires on a carbon fibre laminate strip. This structure is relatively simple to build, however it is useful in order to experimentally demonstrate the feasibility of the concept proposed in the first part of the chapter. In the second part, the making of a fibre-reinforced composite with embedded shape memory alloy wires is investigated, considering different possible choices of materials and manufacturing processes. Although a number of technological issues still need to be faced, the experimental results allow to demonstrate the mechanism of shape control via embedded shape memory alloy wires, while showing a good agreement with the proposed model predictions.

Tetrahedral mesh optimization combining boundary and inner node relocation and adaptive local refinement

[EN]This work introduces a new technique for tetrahedral mesh optimization. The procedure relocates boundary and inner nodes without changing the mesh topology. In order to maintain the boundary approximation while boundary nodes are moved, a local refinement of tetrahedra with faces on the solid boundary is necessary in some cases. New nodes are projected on the boundary by using a surface parameterization. In this work, the proposed method is applied to tetrahedral meshes of genus-zero solids that are generated by the meccano method. In this case, the solid boundary is automatically decomposed into six surface patches which are parameterized into the six faces of a cube with the Floater parameterization...

Risposta del Meiobenthos all'input di detrito da barriere artificiali

Le aree costiere hanno un ruolo fondamentale nello sviluppo economico, sociale e politico della maggior parte dei paesi; esse supportano infatti diversi ecosistemi produttivi che rendono disponibili beni e servizi. L'importanza economica delle aree costiere è destinata a una considerevole crescita a causa del costante aumento delle popolazioni, delle industrie e delle attività  ricreazionali che si concentrano sempre di più sulle coste e ciò può provocare un'alterazione delle linee di costa, imputabile a più fattori e un deterioramento delle condizioni naturali. E' necessario anche tenere da conto dei processi erosivi, sia imputabili a cause naturali (correnti oceaniche, movimenti di marea; azione del vento) sia a cause antropiche (subsidenza del terreno indotta dall'uomo, dragaggio al largo, riduzione del rifornimento di sedimento dai fiumi, distruzione di letti algali, paludi e dune sabbiose). A questo panorama va poi aggiunto il problema dell'innalzamento del livello del mare e dell'aumento delle frequenze di tempeste, come conseguenza del cambiamento climatico globale. In questo contesto quindi, le strutture rigide di difesa contro l'erosione e le mareggiate sono diventate molto comuni nelle aree costiere, coinvolgendo in alcune regioni più della metà della linea di costa. Il meccanismo di difesa attuato dalle barriere consiste nel provocare una riduzione dell'energia delle onde e conseguentemente in una limitazione della quantità di sedimento che viene da loro rimosso dalla spiaggia. La presenza di strutture rigide di difesa generalmente comporta una perdita di habitat di fondale molle e, a causa delle variazioni idrodinamiche che la loro presenza comporta, anche delle comunità ad esso associate, sia su scala locale, che su scala regionale. Uno dei problemi che tali strutture possono indurre è l'eccessiva deposizione di detrito prodotto dalle specie che si insediano sul substrato duro artificiale, che normalmente non fanno parte delle comunità "naturali" di fondo molle circostanti le strutture. Lo scopo di questo studio è stato quello di cercare di evidenziare gli effetti che la deposizione di tale detrito potesse avere sulle comunita meiobentoniche di fondale molle. A tale fine è stata campionata un'area antistante la località di Lido di Dante (RA), la quale è protetta dal 1996 da una struttura artificiale, per fronteggiare il problema dell'erosione della zona, in aumento negli ultimi decenni. La struttura è costituita da una barriera semisoffolta e tre pennelli, di cui uno completamente collegato alla barriera. A circa 50 m dalla barriera, e alla profondità di 4 m circa, è stato allestito un esperimento manipolativo in cui è stato valutato l'effetto della deposizione delle due specie dominanti colonizzanti la barriera, Ulva sp. e Mitili sp. sull'ambiente bentonico, e in particolare sulla comunità  di meiofauna. Ulva e Mitili sono stati posti in sacche di rete che sono state depositate sul fondo al fine di simulare la deposizione naturale di detrito, e tali sacche hanno costituito i trattamenti dell'esperimento, i quali sono stati confrontati con un Controllo, costituito da sedimento non manipolato, e un Controllo Procedurale, costituito da una sacca vuota. Il campionamento è stato fatto in tre occasioni nel giugno 2009 (dopo 2 giorni, dopo 7 giorni e dopo 21 giorni dall'allestimento dell'esperimento) per seguire la dinamica temporale degli effetti del detrito. Per ogni combinazione tempo/trattamento sono state prelevate 4 repliche, per un totale di 48 campioni. Successivamente sono stati prelevati ulteriori campioni di meiofauna in condizioni naturali. In particolare sono stati raccolti in due Posizioni diverse, all'Interno e all'Esterno del pennello posto più a Sud, e su due substrati differenti, rispettivamente Ulva proveniente dalle barriere e sedimento privo di detrito. Per ogni combinazione Posizione/Substrato sono state prelevate 3 repliche, ottenendo un totale di 12 campioni. Tutti i campioni prelevati sono stati poi trattati in laboratorio tramite la procedura di filtratura, pulizia e centrifuga indicata dal protocollo. A questa fase è seguito il sorting al microscopio, durante il quale la meiofauna è stata identificata ed enumerata a livello di taxa maggiori. Per quanto riguarda il taxon più abbondante, quello dei Nematodi, si è proceduto anche all'analisi della distribuzione della biomassa per classi di taglia, in quanto descrittore funzionale delle comunità. Per la costruzione degli spettri di biomassa per classi di taglia sono state misurate la lunghezza e larghezza dei primi 100 Nematodi presenti nei campioni. A partire da tali valori dimensionali è stata calcolata la biomassa di ogni individuo, usata poi per la costruzione dei size spectra, tramite tre metodiche messe a confronto: "Nematode Biomass Spectra" (NBS), "Normalised Nematode Biomass Spectra"(NNBS), "Mean Cumulative Biomass Spectra" (MC-NBS). Successivamente la composizione e la struttura della comunità meiobentonica, in termini di consistenza numerica e di rapporti reciproci di densità degli organismi che la compongono e variabili dimensionali, sono state analizzate mediante tecniche di analisi univariate e multivariate. Ciò che emerge generalmente dai risultati dell'esperimento è la mancanza di interazione significativa tra i due fattori, tempi e trattamenti, mentre sono risultati significativi i due fattori principali, considerati singolarmente. Tali esiti sono probabilmente imputabili all'elevata variabilità fra campioni dei trattamenti e delle patches di controllo. Nonostante ciò l'analisi dei risultati ottenuti permette di effettuare alcune considerazioni interessanti. L'analisi univariata ha mostrato che nel confronto tra trattamenti non ci sono differenze significative nel numero medio di taxa rinvenuti, mentre il livello di diversità e di equidistribuzione degli individui nei taxa differisce in maniera significativa, indicando che la struttura delle comunità varia in funzione dei trattamenti e non in funzione del tempo. Nel trattamento Ulva si osservano le densità più elevate della meiofauna totale imputabile prevalentemente alla densità dei Nematodi. Tuttavia, i valori di diversità e di equiripartizione non sono risultati più elevati nei campioni di Ulva, bensì in quelli di Mitili. Tale differenza potrebbe essere imputabile all'inferiorità numerica dei Nematodi nei campioni di Mitili. Questo andamento è stato giustificato dai differenti tempi di degradazione di Mitili e Ulva posti nelle sacche durante l'esperimento, dai quali emerge una più rapida degradazione di Ulva; inoltre la dimensione ridotta della patch analizzata, i limitati tempi di permanenza fanno sì che l'Ulva non rappresenti un fattore di disturbo per la comunità analizzata. Basandosi su questo concetto risulta dunque difficile spiegare l'inferiorità numerica dei Nematodi nei campioni del trattamento Mitili, in quanto i tempi di degradazione durante l'esperimento sono risultati più lenti, ma è anche vero che è nota l'elevata resistenza dei Nematodi ai fenomeni di ipossia/anossia creata da fenomeni di arricchimento organico. E' possibile però ipotizzare che la presenza delle valve dei Mitili aumenti la complessità dell'habitat e favorisca la colonizzazione da parte di più specie, tra cui specie predatrici. Tale effetto di predazione potrebbe provocare la riduzione dell'abbondanza media dei Nematodi rispetto a Ulva e al Controllo, in quanto i Nematodi costituiscono circa l'85% della meiofauna totale rinvenuta nei campioni. A tale riduzione numerica, però, non corrisponde un decremento dei valori medi di biomassa rilevati, probabilmente a causa del fatto che l'arricchimento organico dovuto ai Mitili stessi favorisca la permanenza degli individui più facilmente adattabili a tali condizioni e di dimensioni maggiori, oppure, la colonizzazione in tempi successivi delle patches a Mitili da parte di individui più grandi. Anche i risultati dell'analisi multivariata sono in accordo con quanto rilevato dall'analisi univariata. Oltre alle differenze tra tempi si evidenzia anche un'evoluzione della comunità nel tempo, in particolar modo dopo 7 giorni dall'allestimento dell'esperimento, quando si registrano il maggior numero di individui meiobentonici e il maggior numero di taxa presenti. Il taxon che ha risentito maggiormente dell'influenza dei tempi è quello degli Anfipodi, con densità maggiori nei campioni prelevati al secondo tempo e sul trattamento Ulva. E'importante considerare questo aspetto in quanto gli Anfipodi sono animali che comprendono alcune specie detritivore e altre carnivore; le loro abitudini detritivore potrebbero quindi aumentare il consumo e la degradazione di Ulva, spiegando anche la loro abbondanza maggiore all'interno di questo trattamento, mentre le specie carnivore potrebbero concorrere al decremento del numero medio di Nematodi nei Mitili. Un risultato inatteso della sperimentazione riguarda l'assenza di differenze significative tra trattamenti e controlli, come invece era lecito aspettarsi. Risultati maggiormente significativi sono emersi dall'analisi del confronto tra sedimento privo di detrito e sedimento contenente Ulva provenienti dal contesto naturale. Relativamente all'area esterna alla barriera, sono stati confrontati sedimento privo di detrito e quello sottostante l'Ulva, nelle condizioni sperimentali e naturali. Globalmente notiamo che all'esterno della barriera gli indici univariati, le densità totali di meiofauna, di Nematodi e il numero di taxa, si comportano in maniera analoga nelle condizioni sperimentali e naturali, riportando valori medi maggiori nei campioni prelevati sotto l'Ulva, rispetto a quelli del sedimento privo di detrito. Differente appare invece l'andamento delle variabili e degli indici suddetti riguardanti i campioni prelevati nell'area racchiusa all'interno della barriera, dove invece i valori medi maggiori si rilevano nei campioni prelevati nel sedimento privo di detrito. Tali risultati possono essere spiegati dall'alterazione dell'idrodinamismo esercitato dalla barriera, il quale provoca maggiori tempi di residenza del detrito con conseguente arricchimento di materia organica nell'area interna alla barriera. Le comunità dei sedimenti di quest'area saranno quindi adattate a tale condizioni, ma la deposizione di Ulva in un contesto simile può aggravare la situazione comportando la riduzione delle abbondanze medie dei Nematodi e degli altri organismi meiobentonici sopracitata. Per quel che riguarda i size spectra la tecnica che illustra i risultati in maniera più evidente è quella dei Nematode Biomass Spectra. I risultati statistici fornitici dai campioni dell'esperimento, non evidenziano effetti significativi dei trattamenti, ma a livello visivo, l'osservazione dei grafici evidenzia valori medi di biomassa maggiori nei Nematodi rilevati sui Mitili rispetto a quelli rilevati su Ulva. Differenze significative si rilevano invece a livello dei tempi: a 21 giorni dall'allestimento dell'esperimento infatti, le biomasse dei Nematodi misurati sono più elevate. Relativamente invece ai size spectra costruiti per l'ambiente naturale, mostrano andamento e forma completamente diversi e con differenze significative tra l'interno e l'esterno della barriera; sembra infatti che la biomassa nella zona interna sia inibita, portando a densità maggiori di Nematodi, ma di dimensioni minori. All'esterno della barriera troviamo invece una situazione differente tra i due substrati. Nel sedimento prelevato sotto l'Ulva sembra infatti che siano prevalenti le classi dimensionali maggiori, probabilmente a causa del fatto che l'Ulva tende a soffocare le specie detritivore, permettendo la sopravvivenza delle specie più grosse, composte da predatori poco specializzati, i quali si cibano degli organismi presenti sull'Ulva stessa. Nel sedimento privo di detrito, invece, la distribuzione all'interno delle classi segue un andamento completamente diverso, mostrando una forma del size spectra più regolare. In base a questo si può ipotizzare che la risposta a questo andamento sia da relazionarsi alla capacità di movimento dei Nematodi: a causa della loro conformazione muscolare i Nematodi interstiziali di dimensioni minori sono facilitati nel movimento in un substrato con spazi interstiziali ridotti, come sono nel sedimento sabbioso, invece Nematodi di dimensioni maggiori sono più facilitati in sedimenti con spazi interstiziali maggiori, come l'Ulva. Globalmente si evidenzia una risposta della comunità  bentonica all'incremento di detrito proveniente dalla struttura rigida artificiale, ma la risposta dipende dal tipo di detrito e dai tempi di residenza del detrito stesso, a loro volta influenzati dal livello di alterazione del regime idrodinamico che la struttura comporta. Si evince inoltre come dal punto di vista metodologico, le analisi univariate, multivariate e dei size spectra riescano a porre l'accento su diverse caratteristiche strutturali e funzionali della comunità. Rimane comunque il fatto che nonostante la comunità scientifica stia studiando metodiche "taxonomic free" emerge che, se da un lato queste possono risultare utili, dall'altro, per meglio comprendere l'evoluzione di comunità, è necessaria un'analisi più specifica che punti all'identificazione almeno delle principali famiglie. E'importante infine considerare che l'effetto riscontrato in questo studio potrebbe diventare particolarmente significativo nel momento in cui venisse esteso alle centinaia di km di strutture artificiali che caratterizzano ormai la maggior parte delle coste, la cui gestione dovrebbe tenere conto non soltanto delle esigenze economico-turistiche, e non dovrebbe prescindere dalla conoscenza del contesto ambientale in cui si inseriscono, in quanto, affiancati a conseguenze generali di tali costruzioni, si incontrano molti effetti sitospecifici.

A new insight in stress recovery tecniques and hessian reconstruction methods

Stress recovery techniques have been an active research topic in the last few years since, in 1987, Zienkiewicz and Zhu proposed a procedure called Superconvergent Patch Recovery (SPR). This procedure is a last-squares fit of stresses at super-convergent points over patches of elements and it leads to enhanced stress fields that can be used for evaluating finite element discretization errors. In subsequent years, numerous improved forms of this procedure have been proposed attempting to add equilibrium constraints to improve its performances. Later, another superconvergent technique, called Recovery by Equilibrium in Patches (REP), has been proposed. In this case the idea is to impose equilibrium in a weak form over patches and solve the resultant equations by a last-square scheme. In recent years another procedure, based on minimization of complementary energy, called Recovery by Compatibility in Patches (RCP) has been proposed in. This procedure, in many ways, can be seen as the dual form of REP as it substantially imposes compatibility in a weak form among a set of self-equilibrated stress fields. In this thesis a new insight in RCP is presented and the procedure is improved aiming at obtaining convergent second order derivatives of the stress resultants. In order to achieve this result, two different strategies and their combination have been tested. The first one is to consider larger patches in the spirit of what proposed in [4] and the second one is to perform a second recovery on the recovered stresses. Some numerical tests in plane stress conditions are presented, showing the effectiveness of these procedures. Afterwards, a new recovery technique called Last Square Displacements (LSD) is introduced. This new procedure is based on last square interpolation of nodal displacements resulting from the finite element solution. In fact, it has been observed that the major part of the error affecting stress resultants is introduced when shape functions are derived in order to obtain strains components from displacements. This procedure shows to be ultraconvergent and is extremely cost effective, as it needs in input only nodal displacements directly coming from finite element solution, avoiding any other post-processing in order to obtain stress resultants using the traditional method. Numerical tests in plane stress conditions are than presented showing that the procedure is ultraconvergent and leads to convergent first and second order derivatives of stress resultants. In the end, transverse stress profiles reconstruction using First-order Shear Deformation Theory for laminated plates and three dimensional equilibrium equations is presented. It can be seen that accuracy of this reconstruction depends on accuracy of first and second derivatives of stress resultants, which is not guaranteed by most of available low order plate finite elements. RCP and LSD procedures are than used to compute convergent first and second order derivatives of stress resultants ensuring convergence of reconstructed transverse shear and normal stress profiles respectively. Numerical tests are presented and discussed showing the effectiveness of both procedures.