995 resultados para ALOHA2002-12-14


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Partial ownership interests are a widespread phenomenon in modern corporate environment. Unless minority shareholding affords the target to exercise control over the target, they do currently not have to be notified to the European Commission under EU merger regime. However, economic research has long suggested that when linking competing or non-horizontally positioned undertakings particularly in industries with few competitors, minority shareholdings even far below the majority of shares or voting rights could lead to higher prices or lower output volumes to the detriment of consumers. The Commission has recognized this issue and proceeded to suggest an extension of the merger regime to catch also certain non-controlling minority acquisitions. Horizontal non-controlling minority shareholdings create a positive correlation between the sales revenues of the partial acquirer and target. Through the equity interest the acquirer will internalise a fraction, proportional to the financial rights attached to the shareholding, of the profit of the target. This will incentivise the acquirer to contribute to increasing the target’s business profits by increasing its own sales price (horizontal unilateral effects). When a minority stake is held in a vertically related or a conglomerate company, the minority acquirer could be allowed to hamper or eliminate the target’s rivals’ access either to inputs (input foreclosure) or customers (customer foreclosure), depending on which level of the supply chain the parties are (vertical unilateral effects). Under certain circumstances minority share acquisitions could also lessen competition because they facilitate collusion between companies active in the market (coordinated effects). Economic theory confirms that non-controlling minority shareholdings may under certain circumstances create anti-competitive effects that are unlikely to be remedies by pro-competitive effects. However, they are likely to be of less significant nature than anticompetitive effects created by full mergers. This derives fore mostly from the fact that a minority share acquirer carries all the costs associated with its unilateral action but will internalise only a fraction of the lost profits. This is likely to limit the acquirer’s incentive to raise price and the profitability of such behavior. Having in mind that the number of potentially problematic cases is expected to be next to negligible, the limited potential competitive effects of non-controlling minority share acquisitions cannot be seen to clearly merit extension of the scope of the EUMR. The system suggested by the Commission is particularly ill-fitted for such purpose given the clear lack of legal certainty and considerable administrative burden associated with it.

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Viestintä- ja tietoteknologian kehittyminen on muuttanut työnteon perinteisiä muotoja. Hajautettu työ on lisääntynyt organisaatioissa. Sähköpostin käyttö on kasvattanut esimiesten mahdollisuuksia liikkuvan työn ja etätyön tekemiselle. Sähköisen viestintävälineen, kuten sähköpostin välityksellä tapahtuva johtaminen on yleistynyt jatkuvasti ja esimies pystyy hoitamaan esimiestehtäviään usein myös sähköpostin välityksellä. Sähköpostijohtamista käytetään, vaikka työskennellään samassa toimitilassa. Johtaminen sähköpostin välityksellä vaatii esimieheltä erilaisia kompetensseja ja osaamista sekä taitoja kuin perinteinen työ. Tämän tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää sähköisten viestintävälineiden välityksellä tapahtuvaa johtamista. Tutkielman viitekehyksessä perehdytään ensin sähköpostiin viestintävälineenä. Toiseksi kuvataan hajautettua työtä, esimiehen kompetensseja ja sähköpostijohtamista. Päätutkimuskysymys on: Miten sähköpostia käytetään johtamisvälineenä hajautuneessa työssä? Tutkimuksen alakysymykset ovat: Millaisiin johtamistilanteisiin sähköpostin käyttö liittyy? ja Millaisia johtamiskompetensseja sähköposti vaatii esimieheltä? Tutkimus toteutettiin kvalitatiivisena tutkimuksena ja analyysimenetelmänä käytettiin teoriaohjaavaa sisällönanalyysia. Tutkimuksen empiirinen aineisto koostuu teemahaastatteluista, joissa haastateltiin sähköpostia esimiestehtävissään käyttäviä esimiehiä. Tutkimustulosten perusteella sähköpostia pidettiin tehokkaana, helppokäyttöisenä ja nopeana viestintävälineenä. Sähköpostijohtamista käytetään tiedon jakamisessa ja työtehtävien täsmentämisessä. Sähköposti koettiin välitöntä reagointia vaativissa tilanteissa kuitenkin hitaaksi viestintävälineeksi. Näissä tilanteissa esimiehet käyttivät ennemmin pikaviestinsovelluksia. Esimiesten kompetensseista korostui kiinnostus sekä teknologian käyttöä että osaamisenkehittämistä kohtaan. Sähköisten viestintävälineiden rinnalle esimiehet kokivat tarvitsevansa myös kasvokkain tapahtuvaa johtamista. Tämän tutkimuksen mukaan sähköpostijohtamisella, ei täysin voida korvata kasvokkain tapahtuvaa johtamista. Tutkimustulosten joukosta nousi esille havainto, jossa esimiehet eivät aina kokeneet sähköisten viestintävälineiden välityksellä tapahtuvaa vuorovaikutusta johtamiseksi.

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An exchange traded fund (ETF) is a financial instrument that tracks some predetermined index. Since their initial establishment in 1993, ETFs have grown in importance in the field of passive investing. The main reason for the growth of the ETF industry is that ETFs combine benefits of stock investing and mutual fund investing. Although ETFs resemble mutual funds in many ways, also many differences occur. In addition, ETFs not only differ from mutual funds but also differ among each other. ETFs can be divided into two categories, i.e. market capitalisation ETFs and fundamental (or strategic) ETFs, and further into subcategories depending on their fundament basis. ETFs are a useful tool for diversification especially for a long-term investor. Although the economic importance of ETFs has risen drastically during the past 25 years, the differences and risk-return characteristics of fundamental ETFs have yet been rather unstudied area. In effect, no previous research on market capitalisation and fundamental ETFs was found during the research process. For its part, this thesis seeks to fill this research gap. The studied data consist of 50 market capitalisation ETFs and 50 fundamental ETFs. The fundaments, on which the indices that the fundamental ETFs track, were not limited nor segregated into subsections. The two types of ETFs were studied at an aggregate level as two different research groups. The dataset ranges from June 2006 to December 2014 with 103 monthly observations. The data was gathered using Bloomberg Terminal. The analysis was conducted as an econometric performance analysis. In addition to other econometric measures, the methods that were used in the performance analysis included modified Value-at-Risk, modified Sharpe ratio and Treynor ratio. The results supported the hypothesis that passive market capitalisation ETFs outperform active fundamental ETFs in terms of risk-adjusted returns, though the difference is rather small. Nevertheless, when taking into account the higher overall trading costs of the fundamental ETFs, the underperformance gap widens. According to the research results, market capitalisation ETFs are a recommendable diversification instrument for a long-term investor. In addition to better risk-adjusted returns, passive ETFs are more transparent and the bases of their underlying indices are simpler than those of fundamental ETFs. ETFs are still a young financial innovation and hence data is scarcely available. On future research, it would be valuable to research the differences in risk-adjusted returns also between the subsections of fundamental ETFs.

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1887/12/14 (N3889,A11).

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1926/12/14 (N6).

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1901/12/14 (A18,N50).

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1893/12/14 (A2,N50).

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1779/12/14 (N4).

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1941/12/14 (A6,N270).

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1884/12/14 (Numéro 27).

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1902/12/14 (Numéro 630).

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1888/12/14 (Numéro 236).

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1919/12/14 (Numéro 1512).

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1913/12/14 (Numéro 1204).

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1924/12/14 (Numéro 1773).