Type of grinding of the main cereal of the diet affects production of brown egg-laying hens

The influence of method of grinding of the cereal of the diet on production and egg quality was studied in 420 Hy-line brown egg-laying hens. The design was completely randomized with six treatments arranged as a 3 × 2 factorial with three cereals (barley, dented maize and soft wheat) and two grinding procedures (hammer mill vs. roller mill). Each treatment was replicated seven times and the experimental unit was an enriched cage with ten hens. Production was recorded every four weeks from 24 to 59 weeks of age and egg quality was measured at 40 and 56 weeks of age. For the entire experiment, feed intake was higher in hens fed wheat or maize than in hens fed barley (110.8 and 110.7 vs. 109.7 g/d; P = 0.014) but most of the differences were observed when the cereal was roller milled (P = 0.009 for the interaction). Also, egg production was similar for the three diets when the cereal was hammer milled but tended to be lower for the barley than for the wheat or maize diets when the cereal was roller milled (P = 0.09 for the interaction). None of the other productive or egg quality traits was affected by dietary treatment. We conclude that roller mills are useful to grind low fiber cereals, such as maize or wheat. However, the use of the roller mill might not be adequate when barley is the main cereal in diets for egg-laying hens.

Identification of the method to quantify soluble fibre and the effect of the source of fibre on the ileal and faecal digestibility of soluble and insoluble fibre in rabbits = Identificación del método para cuantificar la fibra soluble y el efecto de la fuente de fibra en la digestibilidad ileal y fecal de la fibra soluble e insoluble en conejos

La presente tesis constituye un avance en el estudio de los métodos para cuantificar la fibra soluble y los efectos de las fracciones de fibra y las fuentes de fibra sobre la digestión de las diferentes fracciones de fibra (soluble e insoluble) en el conejo. Hay un efecto positivo de la fibra soluble sobre la salud intestinal de los conejos y, por ende, una reducción de la mortalidad en animales destetados. Pese a esto, no está claro si estos efectos se deben específicamente a la fracción soluble. Por lo que los objetivos generales de esta tesis fueron: 1) comparar diferentes metodologías químicas e in vitro para cuantificar la fibra soluble y estudiar las posibles interferencias en la cuantificación de la fibra soluble por las mucinas, y viceversa, 2) determinar los efectos de la fibra, el lugar de fermentación, el método para valorar la fibra soluble e insoluble, y la corrección de la fibra soluble por el contenido intestinal de mucinas sobre la digestibilidad de las distintas fracciones de la fibra y 3) evaluar los efectos individuales de las fracciones soluble e insoluble de la fibra de pulpa de remolacha y de manzana, sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra soluble e insoluble y los parámetros digestivos. Para ello se llevaron a cabo 4 estudios. En el primer estudio se compararon diferentes metodologías químicas e in vitro para valorar la fibra soluble de diferentes alimentos y se estudió la posible interferencia en la determinación de la fibra soluble y mucinas. Para ello se utilizaron seis ingredientes (pulpa de remolacha, pectinas de pulpa de remolacha, pulpa de remolacha lavada, paja de cereal, cascarilla de girasol y lignocelulosa) y siete piensos de conejos con diferentes niveles de fibra soluble. En un primer experimento se analizó la fibra dietética total (FDT), la fibra dietética insoluble (FDI), la fibra dietética soluble (FDS), la fibra neutro detergente corregida por cenizas y proteínas (aFNDmo-pb), y la digestibilidad in vitro 2 pasos pepsina/pancreatina (residuo corregido por cenizas y proteína, ivMSi2) de los ingredientes y piensos. Además la fibra soluble se calculó mediante la diferencia entre FDT-FDI (FDSFDI), FDT- ivMSi2 (FDSivMSi2), y FDT - aFNDmo-pb (FDSaFNDmo-pb). Cuando la fibra soluble se determinó directamente como FDS o se calculó como FDT-FDI no se observaron diferencias (109 g/kg MS, en promedio). Sin embargo, cuando la fibra soluble se calculó como FDT - aFNDmo-pb su valor fue un 40% menor (153 g/kg MS. P < 0,05), mientras que la FDSFDI (124 g/kg MS) no fue diferente a ninguna de las otras metodologías. La correlación entre los tres métodos fue elevada (r > 0,96. P < 0,001. n = 13), pero disminuyó o incluso desapareció cuando la pulpa o las pectinas de la remolacha fueron excluidas del análisis. En un segundo experimento, se comparó el método ivDMi2 usando crisoles (método de referencia) con una modificación del mismo usando bolsas ANKOM digeridas individualmente o en colectivo para simplificar la determinación de la FDSivMSi2. La FDSivMSi2 no difirió entre los métodos comparados. En un tercer experimento, se analizó la posible interferencia entre la determinación de la fibra soluble y las mucinas intestinales. Se observó un contenido de FDT y de mucinas elevado en las muestras de pectinas de remolacha (994 y 709 g/kg MS), así como en el moco intestinal de conejo (571 y 739 g/kg MS) cuando se aplicó el método de mucinas por precipitación con etanol. Sin embargo, después de aplicar una pectinasa en el material precipitado, la cantidad de mucinas recuperadas en las muestras de pectinas de remolacha fue cercana a cero, mientras que en el moco intestinal fue similar a los resultados previos al uso de la enzima. Con los resultados de este ensayo se estimaron los carbohidratos de mucinas retenidos en los contenidos digestivos y se propuso una corrección para la determinación de la digestibilidad de la FDT y fibra soluble. En conclusión, la contaminación de las mucinas de la digesta con fibra soluble se soluciona usando pectinasas. El segundo estudio se centró en estudiar: 1) el efecto del tipo de fibra, 2) el sitio de fermentación, 3) el método para cuantificar fibra y 4) la corrección por mucinas sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra. Para ello se formularon tres piensos con diferentes niveles de fibra soluble (FDT-aFNDmo-pb). Un pienso bajo en fibra soluble (LSF. 85 g/kg DM), un pienso medio en fibra soluble (MSF. 102 g/kg DM), y un pienso alto en fibra soluble (HSF. 145 g/kg DM). Estos piensos se obtuvieron reemplazando un 50% del heno del alfalfa en el pienso MSF por una mezcla de pulpa de manzana y remolacha (HSF) o por una mezcla de cascarilla de avena y proteína de soja (LSF). Se utilizaron 30 conejas canuladas para determinar la digestibilidad ileal y fecal. La digestibilidad cecal se calculó mediante diferencia entre la digestibilidad fecal e ileal. La fibra insoluble se determinó como aFNDmo-pb, IDF, e ivMSi2, mientras que la fibra soluble se calculó como FDSFDI, FDSaFNDmo-pb, y FDSivMSi2. La digestibilidad de la FDT y la fibra soluble se corrigieron por las mucinas. La concentración de mucinas en la digesta ileal y fecal, aumento desde el grupo LSF hasta el grupo con el pienso HSF (P < 0,01). La corrección por mucinas aumentó las digestibilidades de la FDT y la fibra soluble a nivel ileal, mientras que a nivel cecal las redujo. (P < 0.01). El coeficiente de digestibilidad ileal de FDT aumentó desde el grupo LSF al grupo HSF (0,12 vs. 0,281. P < 0,01), sin diferencias en el coeficiente de digestibilidad cecal (0,264), por lo que la tendencia a nivel fecal entre los grupos se mantuvo. El coeficiente de digestibilidad ileal de la fibra insoluble aumento desde el grupo con el pienso LSF al grupo con el pienso HSF (0,113 vs. 0,210. P < 0,01), sin diferencias a nivel cecal (0,139) y sin efecto del método usado, resultando en una digestibilidad elevada a nivel fecal, con tendencias similares a las observadas a nivel ileal. El coeficiente de digestibilidad de la FND fue elevada en comparación con la FDI o la ivMSi2 (P > 0.01). El coeficiente de la digestibilidad ileal de la fibra soluble fue mayor en el grupo LSF respecto al grupo LSF (0,436 vs. 0,145. P < 0,01) y el método no afectó a esta determinación. El coeficiente de la digestibilidad cecal de la fibra soluble se redujo desde el grupo LSF hasta el grupo HSF (0,721 vs. 0,492. P < 0,05). El valor más bajo de digestibilidad cecal y fecal de fibra soluble fue medido con el método FDSaFNDmo-pb (P < 0,01). Se observó una alta correlación entre las digestibilidades de la fibra soluble determinada como FDSFDI, FDSaFNDmo-pb, y FDSivMSi2, por lo tanto la información proporcionada por una u otra metodología fueron similares. Sin embargo, cuando se compararon con efectos fisiológicos (producción de mucinas y peso del ciego y pH del ciego de un trabajo previo), la FDSaFNDmo-pb globalmente mostró estar mejor correlacionado con estos parámetros fisiológicos. En conclusión, la corrección por mucinas es necesaria para determinar la digestibilidad ileal de la FDT y fibra soluble, mientras que la elección de uno u otro método es menos relevante. La inclusión de pulpa de manzana y remolacha incrementa la cantidad de FDT que desaparece antes de llegar al ciego. En el tercer estudio se estudió el efecto de la fracción fibrosa soluble e insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha y el método de cuantificación de la fibra soluble e insoluble sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra y algunos parámetros digestivos. Para ello se formularon cuatro piensos con niveles similares de fibra insoluble (315g aFNDmo-pb/kg MS) y proteína (167 g/kg MS). El pienso control contuvo el nivel más bajo de fibra soluble (30,3 g/kg, con cascarilla de girasol y paja como fuente de fibra). Un segundo pienso se obtuvo mediante la sustitución de 60 g de almidón/kg del pienso control por pectinas de remolacha (82,9 g fibra soluble/kg MS). Los otras dos piensos resultaron de la sustitución parcial de las fuentes de fibra del pienso control por la fracción insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha y la pulpa de remolacha entera (42.2 y 82.3 g fibra soluble/kg MS, respectivamente). Cincuenta y seis conejos en cebo (14/pienso), de 2,4  0.21 kg de peso, fueron usados para determinar la digestibilidad ileal y fecal de la FDT, FDI, aFNDmo-pb, FDSFDI, y FDSaFNDmo-pb. La concentración de mucinas en el íleon y heces se utilizaron para corregir la digestibilidad de la FDT y fibra soluble. También se midió el peso de diferentes segmentos del tracto digestivo y el pH del contenido digestivo. Los conejos alimentados con el pienso de fibra insoluble de pulpa de remolacha mostraron los consumos más bajos con respecto a los demás grupos (124 vs. 139 g/d, respectivamente. P < 0,05). El flujo de mucinas ileales fue más alto (P < 0.05) en el grupo alimentado con el pienso de pectinas de remolacha (9,0 g/d en promedio) que los del grupo control (4,79 g/d), mostrando los otros dos grupos valores intermedios, sin detectarse diferencias a nivel fecal. La digestibilidad ileal de la FDT (corregida por mucinas) y la fibra insoluble no se vieron afectadas por el tipo de pienso. El método usado para determinar la fibra insoluble afectó su digestibilidad ileal (0,123 para FDI vs. 0,108 para aFNDmo-pb. P < 0.01). De todas formas, los métodos no afectaron al cálculo de la fibra fermentada antes del ciego (4,9 g/d en promedio). Los conejos alimentados con el pienso de pulpa de remolacha y con el pienso con la fracción insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha mostraron las digestibilidades fecales más altas de la fibra insoluble (0,266 en promedio vs. 0,106 del grupo control), mientras que en los animales del pienso con pectinas esta digestibilidad fue un 47% mayor respecto al pienso control (P < 0,001). La digestibilidad fecal de la fibra insoluble fue un 20% más alta cuando se usó la FND en lugar de FDI para determinarla (P < 0.001). Esto hizo variar la cantidad de fibra insoluble fermentada a lo largo del tracto digestivo (9,5 ó 7,5 g/d cuando fue calculada como FDI o aFNDmo-pb, respectivamente. P < 0,001). Las digestibilidades ileales de la fibra soluble fueron positivas cuando los análisis de fibra soluble de los contenidos ileales fueron corregidos por mucinas, (P < 0,001) excepto para la digestibilidad ileal de la FDSIDF del grupo control. Una vez corregidas por mucinas, los conejos alimentados con los piensos que contuvieron la fracción soluble de la pulpa de remolacha (pienso de pectina y pulpa de remolacha) mostraron una mayor digestibilidad ileal de la fibra soluble, respecto al grupo control (0,483 vs. -0,010. P = 0.002), mientras que el grupo del pienso de fibra insoluble de pulpa de remolacha mostró un valor intermedio (0,274). La digestibilidad total de la fibra soluble fue similar entre todos los grupos (0.93). Los conejos alimentados con pulpa de remolacha y su fracción insoluble mostraron los pesos relativos más altos del estómago respecto a los del pienso control y de pectinas (11 y 56 % respectivamente; P < 0,05). Por otra parte, el peso relativo del ciego aumentó en los animales que consumieron tanto la fracción soluble como insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha, siendo un 16% más pesados (P < 0,001) que el grupo control. El pH del contenido cecal fue más bajo en los animales del grupo de pulpa de remolacha que en los del grupo control (5,64 vs. 6,03; P < 0,001), mientras que los del grupo de pectinas y de fibra insoluble de pulpa de remolacha mostraron valores intermedios. En conclusión, el efecto positivo de la pulpa de remolacha en el flujo de mucinas a nivel ileal se debe a la fracción soluble e insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha. La mitad de la fibra soluble de la pulpa de remolacha desaparece antes de llegar al ciego, independientemente si esta proviene de pectinas puras o de la pulpa de remolacha. El pH cecal esta mejor correlacionado con la cantidad de FDT que desaparece antes del ciego más que con la que se degrada en el ciego. En el último estudio se estudiaron los efectos de la fibra soluble e insoluble de la pulpa de manzana sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra y algunos parámetros digestivos. Cuatro dietas fueron formuladas con niveles similares de fibra insoluble (aFNDmo-pb 32,4%) y proteína (18,6% ambos en base seca). El pienso control contuvo el nivel más bajo de fibra soluble (46 g de fibra soluble/kg, con cascarilla de girasol y paja de cereales como la fuentes de fibra). Un segundo pienso fue obtenido mediante la sustitución de 60 g de almidón/kg del pienso control por pectinas de manzana (105 g fibra soluble/kg). Los otros dos piensos se obtuvieron por la substitución de parte de las fuentes de fibra del pienso control por pulpa de manzana o pulpa de manzana despectinizada (93 y 71 g de fibra soluble/kg, respectivamente). La digestibilidad fecal fue determinada en 23 conejos/pienso con 1.68 ± 0.23 kg de peso vivo, los cuales fueron sacrificados a los 60 d edad para recolectar su contenido digestivo para determinar digestibilidad ileal y otros parámetros digestivos. La fibra soluble de manzana (pectinas y pulpa entera) estimuló el flujo ileal de mucinas (P = 0,002), pero no asi la pulpa despectinizada. La corrección por mucinas incrementó la digestibilidad de la FDT y la fibra soluble a nivel fecal, y especialmente a nivel ileal. Cerca de la mitad de la fibra soluble proveniente de los piensos con cualquiera de las fracciones de la pulpa de manzana fue degradada a nivel ileal, sin mostrar diferencias entre los grupos (46 y 86% en promedio a nivel ileal y fecal respectivamente). La inclusión de pulpa despectinizada de manzana mejoró la digestibilidad de la FND a nivel fecal (P < 0,05) pero no a nivel ileal. El contenido cecal de los conejos alimentados con la pulpa de manzana tuvieron el pH cecal más ácido que los del pienso control (5,55 vs. 5,95. P < 0,001), mientras que los animales con el pienso de pectinas de manzana y de pulpa de manzana despectinizada mostraron valores intermedios. En conclusión los efectos positivo de la pulpa de manzana en el flujo de mucinas se debió principalmente a la fracción soluble de la pulpa de manzana. La mitad de la fibra soluble fue degradada antes del ciego independientemente de si esta provino de las pectinas o de la pulpa de manzana. El pH cecal estuvo mejor correlacionado con la cantidad de FDT fermentada en todo el tracto digestivo y antes de llegar al ciego que con la que se degradó en el ciego. Al integrar los resultados de los estudio 2, 3 y 4 se concluyó que la corrección de mucinas de los contenidos digestivos al determinar FDT y fibra soluble es necesaria para ajustar los cálculos de su digestibilidad. Esta corrección es mucho más importante a nivel ileal y en dietas bajas en fibra soluble. Por otra parte, la FDT desapareció en proporciones importantes antes de llegar al ciego, especialmente en piensos que contienen pulpa de remolacha o de manzana o alguna fracción soluble o insoluble de las mismas y estas diferencias observadas entre los piensos a nivel ileal se correlacionaron mejor con el pH cecal, lo que indicaría que la FDT se solubilizó antes de llegar al ciego y una vez en esté fermentó. Estos resultados implican que determinar la fibra soluble como FDSaFNDmo-pb es la mejor opción y que en la determinación de la digestibilidad de la FDT y fibra soluble se debe considerar la corrección por mucinas especialmente a nivel ileal y en piensos bajos en fibra soluble. ABSTRACT The present thesis constitutes a step forward in advancing the knowledge of the methods to quantify soluble fibre and the effects of the fibre fractions and source of fibre on the site the digestion of different fractions of fibre (soluble and insoluble) in the rabbit. There is a positive effect of soluble fibre on rabbit digestive health and therefore on the reduction of mortality in weaning rabbits. Nevertheless, it is no so clear that the effects of soluble fibre on rabbits are due particularly to this fraction. This thesis aims: 1) to compare the quantification of soluble fibre in feeds using different chemical and in vitro approaches, and to study the potential interference between soluble fibre and mucin determinations, 2) to identify the effects of type of fibre, site of fermentation, method to quantify insoluble and soluble fibre, and correction of the intestinal soluble fibre content for intestinal mucin on the digestibility of fibre fractions and 3) to evaluate the individual effect of soluble and insoluble fibre from sugar beet pulp and apple pulp on ileal and faecal soluble and insoluble digestibility and digestive traits. These objectives were developed in four studies: The first study compared the quantification of soluble fibre in feeds using different chemical and in vitro approaches, and studied the potential interference between soluble fibre and mucin determinations. Six ingredients, sugar beet pulp (SBP), SBP pectins, insoluble SBP, wheat straw, sunflower hulls and lignocellulose, and seven rabbit diets, differing in soluble fibre content, were evaluated. In experiment 1, ingredients and diets were analysed for total dietary fibre (TDF), insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), soluble dietary fibre (SDF), aNDFom (corrected for protein, aNDFom-cp) and 2-step pepsin/pancreatin in vitro DM indigestibility (corrected for ash and protein, ivDMi2). Soluble fibre was estimated by difference using three procedures: TDF - IDF (SDFIDF), TDF - ivDMi2 (SDFivDMi2), and TDF - aNDFom-cp (SDFaNDFom-cp). Soluble fibre determined directly (SDF) or by difference, as SDFivDMi2 were not different (109 g/kg DM, on average). However, when it was calculated as SDFaNDFom-cp the value was 40% higher (153 g/kg DM, P < 0.05), whereas SDFIDF (124 g/kg DM) did not differ from any of the other methods. The correlation between the four methods was high (r ≥ 0.96. P ≤ 0.001. n = 13), but it decreased or even disappeared when SBP pectins and SBP were excluded and a lower and more narrow range of variation of soluble fibre was used. In experiment 2, the ivDMi2 using crucibles (reference method) were compared to those made using individual or collective ankom bags in order to simplify the determination of SDFivDMi2. The ivDMi2 was not different when using crucibles or individual or collective ankom bags. In experiment 3, the potential interference between soluble fibre and intestinal mucin determinations was studied using rabbit intestinal raw mucus, digesta and SBP pectins, lignocelluloses and a rabbit diet. An interference was observed between the determinations of soluble fibre and crude mucin, as the content of TDF and apparent crude mucin were high in SBP pectins (994 and 709 g/kg DM) and rabbit intestinal raw mucus (571 and 739 g/kg DM). After a pectinase treatment, the coefficient of apparent mucin recovery of SBP pectins was close to zero, whereas that of rabbit mucus was not modified. An estimation of the crude mucin carbohydrates retained in digesta TDF is proposed to correct TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. In conclusion, the values of soluble fibre depend on the methodology used. The contamination of crude mucin with soluble fibre is avoided using pectinase. The second study focused on the effect of type of fibre, site of fermentation, method for quantifying insoluble and soluble dietary fibre, and their correction for intestinal mucin on fibre digestibility. Three diets differing in soluble fibre were formulated (85 g/kg DM soluble fibre, in the low soluble fibre [LSF] diet; 102 g/kg DM in the medium soluble fibre [MSF] diet; and 145 g/kg DM in the high soluble fibre [HSF] diet). They were obtained by replacing half of the dehydrated alfalfa in the MSF diet with a mixture of beet and apple pulp (HSF diet) or with a mix of oat hulls and soybean protein (LSF diet). Thirty rabbits with ileal T-cannulas were used to determine total tract apparent digestibility (CTTAD) and ileal apparent digestibility (CIAD). Caecal digestibility was determined by difference between CTTAD and CIAD. Insoluble fibre was measured as aNDFom-cp, IDF, and ivDMi2, whereas soluble fibre was calculated as SDFaNDFom-cp, SDFIDF, SDFivDMi2. The intestinal mucin content was used to correct the TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. Ileal and faecal concentration of mucin increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). Once corrected for intestinal mucin, The CTTAD and CIAD of TDF and soluble fibre increased whereas caecal digestibility decreased (P < 0.01). The CIAD of TDF increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (0.12 vs. 0.281. P < 0.01), with no difference in the caecal digestibility (0.264), resulting in a higher CTTAD from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). The CIAD of insoluble fibre increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (0.113 vs. 0.21. P < 0.01), with no difference in the caecal digestibility (0.139) and no effect of fibre method, resulting in a higher CTTAD for rabbits fed the HSF diet compared with the MSF and LSF diets groups (P < 0.01). The CTTAD of aNDFom-cp was higher compared with IDF or ivDMi2 (P < 0.01). The CIAD of soluble fibre was higher for the HSF than for the LSF diet group (0.436 vs. 0.145. P < 0.01) and fibre method did not affect it. Caecal soluble fibre digestibility decreased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (0.721 vs. 0.492. P < 0.05). The lowest caecal and faecal soluble fibre digestibility was measured using SDFaNDFom-cp (P < 0.01). There was a high correlation among the digestibilities of soluble fibre measured as SDFaNDFom-cp, SDFIDF, and SDFivDMi2. Therefore, these methodologies provide similar information. However, the method that seems to be globally better related to the physiological traits (ileal flow of mucins, and relative weight of the caecum and caecal pH from previous work) was the SDFaNDFom-cp. In conclusion, a correction for intestinal mucin is necessary for ileal TDF and soluble fibre digestibility whereas the selection of the fibre method has a minor relevance. The inclusion of sugar beet and apple pulp increased the amount of TDF fermented in the small intestine. The third study examined the effect of fibre fractions of sugar beet pulp (SBP) and the method for quantifying soluble and insoluble fibre on soluble and insoluble fibre digestibility and digestive traits. Four diets were formulated with similar level of insoluble fibre (aNDFom-cp: 315 g/kg DM) and protein (167 g/kg DM). Control diet contained the lowest level of soluble fibre (30.3 g/kg DM, including sunflower hulls and straw as sole sources of fibre). A second diet was obtained by replacing 60 g starch/kg of control diet with SBP pectins (82.9 g soluble fibre/kg DM). Two more diets were obtained by replacing part of the fibrous sources of the control diet with either insoluble SBP fibre or SBP (42.2 and 82.3 g soluble fibre/kg DM, respectively). Fifty six (14/diet) rabbits weighing 2.40  0.213 kg were used to determine faecal and ileal digestibility of total dietary fibre (TDF), insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), neutral detergent fibre corrected for ash and CP (aNDFom-cp) and soluble fibre estimated as SDFaNDFom-cp and SDFIDF. Faecal and ileal mucin content was used to correct TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. It was also recorded weight of digestive segments and digesta pH. Rabbits fed insoluble SBP showed the lowest feed intake with respect to the other 3 diets (124 vs. 139 g/d, respectively. P < 0.05). Ileal mucin flow was higher (P < 0.05) in animals fed pectin and SBP diets (9.0 g/d, as average) than those fed control diet (4.79 g/d), showing InsSBP group an intermediate value. No differences on mucin content were detected at faecal level. There was no diet effect on the CIAD of TDF (corrected for mucin) and insoluble fibre. Fibre methodology influenced the CIAD of insoluble fibre (0.123 for IDF vs. 0.108 for aNDFom-cp. P < 0.01). Anyway, the amount of insoluble fibre fermented before the caecum did not differ between both methods (4.9 g/d, on average). Rabbits fed insoluble SBP and SBP diets showed the highest CTTAD of insoluble fibre (0.266 on average vs. 0.106 for control group), whereas those fed pectin diet had an intermediate value (0.106. P < 0.001). The CTTAD of insoluble fibre measured with IDF was higher than that measured with aNDFom-cp (by 20%. P < 0.001). It led that the amount of insoluble fibre fermented along the digestive tract were different (9.5 or 7.5 g/d when calculated as IDF or aNDFom-cp, respectively; P < 0.001). When the CIAD of soluble fibre was corrected for mucin they became positive (P < 0.001) except for control group measured as SDFIDF. Once corrected for mucin content, rabbits fed soluble fibre from SBP (pectin and SBP groups) showed higher CIAD of soluble fibre than control group (0.483 vs. -0.019. respectively), whereas the value for insoluble SBP group was intermediate 0.274. The CTTAD of soluble fibre (mucin corrected) was similar among diets 0.93. Rabbits fed with SBP and insoluble SBP diets showed higher total digestive tract and stomach relative weight than those fed pectin and control diets (by 11 and 56 %. respectively, P < 0.05). The caecal relative weight did not differ in rabbits fed pectin, insoluble SBP, and SBP diets (62 g/kg BW, as average) and they were on average 16% higher (P < 0.001) than in control group. Caecal content of rabbits fed SBP diet was more acid than those fed control diet (5.64 vs. 6.03. P < 0.001), whereas those from pectin and insoluble SBP diets showed intermediate values. In conclusion, the positive effect of SBP fibre on ileal mucin flow was due to both its soluble and insoluble fibre fraction. Half of the soluble SBP fibre was degraded before the caecum independently it came from pectin or SBP. The caecal pH correlated better with the ileal amount of fermented TDF in the digestive tract rather than with that fermented in the caecum. The last study examined the effect of soluble and insoluble fibre of apple pulp on fibre digestibility and digestive traits. Four diets were formulated with similar level of insoluble fibre (aNDFom-cp: 324 g/kg DM) and protein (18.6 g/kg DM). Control diet contained the lowest level of soluble fibre (46 g soluble fibre/kg DM, including oat hulls and straw as sole sources of fibre). A second diet was obtained by replacing 60 g starch/kg of control diet with apple pectins (105 g soluble fibre/kg DM). Two more diets were obtained by substituting part of the fibrous sources of the control diet by either apple pulp or depectinized apple pulp (93 and 71 g soluble fibre/kg, respectively). The CTTAD was determined in 23 rabbits/diet weighing 1.68  0.23 kg BW, and 23 rabbits/diet were slaughtered at 60 d of age to collect ileal digesta to determine CIAD and record other digestive traits. Soluble fibre from apple stimulated ileal flow of mucin (P = 0.002), but depectinized apple pulp did not. The correction for mucin increased the digestibility of crude protein, total dietary fibre, and soluble fibre at faecal, but especially at ileal level, depending in this case on the diet. Around half of the soluble fibre in diets containing any fibre fraction from apple was degraded at ileal level, with no differences among these diets (0.46 vs. 0.066 for control group, P=0.046). Faecal soluble fibre digestibility was 0.86 on average for all groups). Inclusion of the apple insoluble fibre improved NDF digestibility at faecal (0.222 vs. 0.069. P < 0.05) but not at ileal level. Caecal content of rabbits fed apple pulp diet was more acid than those fed control diet (5.55 vs. 5.95. P < 0.001), whereas those from pectin and depectinised apple pulp diets showed intermediate values. In conclusion, the positive effect of apple fibre on ileal mucin flow was mainly due to its soluble fibre fraction. Half of the soluble apple fibre was degraded before the caecum independently it came from pectin or apple pulp. The caecal pH correlated better with the total and ileal amount of fermented TDF in the digestive tract rather than with that fermented in the caecum. The results obtained in the studies 2, 3 and 4 were considered together. These results showed that the mucin correction is necessary when the TDF and soluble fibre digestibility is determined, and it correction is more important at ileal level and in diets with low level of soluble fibre. On another hand, incrementing the soluble fibre using sugar beet and apple pulp increased the amount of TDF disappear before the caecum. Moreover, the caecal pH correlated better with the ileal amount of fermented TDF in the digestive tract rather than with that fermented in the caecum. This suggests that an ileal fibre solubilisation may occur rather than ileal fermentation. Therefore the implications of this work were that: the estimation of soluble fibre as SDFaNDFom-cp is an adequate method considering its correlation with the physiological effects; and the TDF and soluble fibre digestibility must be corrected with intestinal mucins, especially when the ileal digestibility is determined.

Efecto sobre el rendimiento productivo y calidad de la canal de la inclusión de guisantes (Pisum sativum) y alberjón (Vicia narbonensis) en el pienso de lechones y cerdos de cebo

Las leguminosas grano presentan un perfil nutricional de gran interés para alimentación de ganado porcino, debido principalmente a su elevado contenido proteico. Sin embargo, la presencia de factores antinutritivos (FAN), que según el género difieren en calidad y cantidad, condiciona la absorción de la proteína, el nutriente más valorado. El objetivo de esta Tesis Doctoral ha sido el estudio del efecto de los principales FAN de guisante y alberjón sobre el rendimiento productivo, de canal y de piezas nobles, cuando sustituyen a la soja, parcial o totalmente, durante la fase estárter y el periodo de engorde de cerdos grasos. Con este motivo se llevaron a cabo 4 ensayos con machos castrados y la misma línea genética: híbrido Duroc x (Landrace x Large white). En el ensayo 1, se estudió la influencia de distintos niveles de inhibidores de proteasas (IP) en el pienso sobre la productividad de lechones durante la fase estárter (40 a 61 días de edad). Para ello, se utilizaron tres variedades de guisantes de invierno que contenían diferentes cantidades de IP, tanto de tripsina (IT) como de quimotripsina (IQ) [unidades de tripsina inhibida/mg (UTI), unidades de quimotripsina inhibida/mg (UQI): 9,87- 10,16, 5,75-8,62 y 12,55-15,75, para guisantes Cartouche, Iceberg y Luna, respectivamente] más elevadas que en la harina de soja 47 (HnaS) y en la soja extrusionada (SE) (UTI/mg - UQI/mg: 0,61-3,56 y 2,36-4,65, para HnaS y SE, respectivamente). El diseño experimental fue al azar, con cuatro tratamientos dietéticos que diferían en las fuentes proteicas y en la cantidad de IP, enfrentando un pienso control de soja a otros tres piensos con guisantes de invierno de las variedades indicadas, que sustituían parcialmente a la soja. Cada tratamiento se replicó cuatro veces, siendo la celda con 6 lechones la unidad experimental. Los animales que consumieron el pienso con guisante Cartouche tuvieron más ganancia media diaria (GMD) que el resto (P < 0,001) con el mismo consumo medio diario (CMD) e índice de conversión (IC). No hubo diferencias significativas entre los animales del pienso control y los que consumieron piensos con guisantes Iceberg y Luna. En el ensayo 2 la leguminosa objeto de estudio fue el alberjón y su FAN el dipéptido _Glutamyl-S-Ethenyl-Cysteine (GEC). El diseño y el periodo experimental fueron los mismos que en el ensayo 1, con cuatro dietas que variaban en el porcentaje de alberjones: 0%, 5%, 15% y 25%, y de GEC (1,54% del grano). Los lechones que consumieron el pienso con 5% tuvieron un CMD y GMD más elevado (P < 0,001), con el mismo IC que los animales pertenecientes al tratamiento 0%. Los índices productivos empeoraron significativamente y de manera progresiva al aumentar el porcentaje de alberjones (15 y 25%). Se obtuvieron ecuaciones de regresión con estructura polinomial que fueron significativas tanto para el nivel de alberjón como para la cantidad de GEC presente en el pienso. El ensayo 3 se efectuó durante el periodo de engorde, sustituyendo por completo la soja a partir de los 84 días de edad con las tres variedades de guisantes de invierno, observando el efecto sobre el rendimiento productivo, de canal y piezas nobles. El diseño, en bloques completos al azar, tuvo cuatro tratamientos según el guisante presente en el pienso y, por lo tanto, los niveles de IP: Control-soja, Cartouche, Iceberg y Luna, con 12 réplicas de 4 cerdos por tratamiento. De 84 a 108 días de edad los animales que consumieron los piensos Control-soja e Iceberg, tuvieron el mismo CMD y GMD, empeorando en los cerdos alimentados con Luna y Cartouche (P < 0,05). El IC fue igual en los tratamientos Control-soja e Iceberg, ocupando una posición intermedia en Cartouche y peor en los cerdos del pienso Luna (P < 0,001). De 109 a 127 días de edad la GMD y el IC fueron iguales, con un CMD más elevado en Control-soja e Iceberg que en los cerdos que consumieron Cartouche y Luna (P < 0,05). No hubo diferencias significativas durante el acabado (128 a 167 días de edad). Globalmente el CMD y GMD fueron más elevados en los cerdos que comieron los piensos Iceberg y Control-soja, empeorando por igual en los que comieron Cartouche y Luna (P < 0,05); el IC fue el mismo en todos los tratamientos. No se observaron diferencias en los datos relacionados con peso y rendimiento de canal y piezas nobles (jamón, paleta y chuletero), ni del contenido de grasa intramuscular en el lomo y proporción de ácidos grasos principales (C16:0, C18:0, C18:1n-9) en la grasa subcutánea. En el ensayo 4, realizado durante el periodo de engorde (60 a 171 días de edad), se valoró el efecto de dietas con distintos niveles de alberjones, y en consecuencia de su factor antinutritivo el dipéptido GEC, sobre el rendimiento productivo y la calidad de la canal y piezas nobles. El diseño fue en cuatro bloques completos al azar, con cuatro tratamientos según el porcentaje de inclusión de alberjón en el pienso: 0%, 5%, 15% y 25%, con 12 réplicas por tratamiento y cuatro cerdos en cada una de ellas. El tratamiento con 5% mejoró la GMD al final de la fase de cebo (152 días de vida) y, junto con el 0%, presentaron los resultados más favorables de peso e IC al final del ensayo (171 días de vida). Del mismo modo, el peso y rendimiento de canal fueron más elevados en los cerdos alimentados con los tratamientos 0% y 5% (P < 0,001). Piensos con el 15 y 25% de alberjones empeoraron los resultados productivos, así como el rendimiento y peso de canal. Sucedió lo mismo con el peso de las piezas nobles (jamón, paleta y chuletero), significativamente superior en 0% y 5% frente a 15% y 25%, siendo los cerdos que consumieron este último pienso los peores. Por el contrario el rendimiento de jamón y chuletero fue más elevado en los cerdos de los tratamientos 25% y 15% que en los que consumieron los piensos con 5% y 0% (P < 0,001); en el rendimiento de paletas se invirtieron los resultados, siendo mayores en los animales de los tratamientos 0% y 5% (P < 0,001). Se obtuvieron ecuaciones de regresión polinomial, para estimar las cantidades de inclusión de alberjones y de GEC más favorables desde el punto de vista productivo, así como los contrastes ortogonales entre los distintos tratamientos. ABSTRACT The grain legumes have a nutritional profile of great interest to feed pigs, mainly due to high protein content. However, the presence of antinutritional factors (ANF), which differ in quality and quantity according to gender, hinder the absorption of the protein, the most valuable nutrient. The aim of this thesis was to study the effect of the main ANF of pea and narbon vetch (NV) on productive performance, of the carcass and main lean cuts, when replacing soybean, partially or totally, during the starter phase and the fattening period of heavy pigs. For this reason were carried four trials with barrows and the same genetic line: Duroc hybrid x (Landrace x Large white). In trial 1, was studied the influence of different levels of protease inhibitors (PI) in the diet over productivity of piglets during the starter phase (40-61 days of age). For this, were used three varieties of winter peas containing different amounts of PI, both trypsin (TI) and chymotrypsin (CI) [inhibited units/mg trypsin (TIU), inhibited units/mg chymotrypsin (CIU): 9.87 - 10.16, 5.75 - 8.62 and 12.55 - 15.75, for peas Cartouche, Iceberg and Luna, respectively] higher than in soybean meal 47 (SBM) and soybeans extruded (SBE) (TIU/mg - CIU/mg: 0.61 - 3.56 and 2.36 - 4.65 for SBM and SBE, respectively). The design was randomized with four dietary treatments differing in protein sources and the amount of PI, with a control diet of soybean and three with different varieties of winter peas: Cartouche, Iceberg and Luna, which partially replace soybean. Each treatment was replicated four times, being the pen with 6 piglets the experimental unit. Pigs that ate the feed with pea Cartouche had better growth (ADG) than the rest (P < 0.001), with the same average daily feed intake (ADFI) and feed conversion ratio (FCR). There were no significant differences between piglets fed with control diet and those fed Iceberg and Luna diets. In trial 2 the legume under study was the NV and your ANF the dipeptide _Glutamyl FAN-S-Ethenyl-Cysteine (GEC). The experimental period and the design were the same as in trial 1, with four diets with different percentage of NV: 0%, 5%, 15% and 25%, and from GEC (1.52% of the grain). The piglets that consumed the feed containing 5% had higher ADG and ADFI (P < 0.05), with the same FCR that pigs belonging to the 0% treatment. Production rates worsened progressively with increasing percentage of NV (15 and 25%). Were obtained regression equations with polynomial structure that were significant for NV percentage and amount of GEC present in the feed. The test 3 was carried out during the fattening period, completely replace soy from 84 days of age with three varieties of winter peas, observing the effect on the yield, carcass and main lean cuts. The design, randomized complete blocks, had four treatments with different levels of PI: Control-soy, Cartouche, Iceberg and Luna, with 12 replicates of 4 pigs per treatment. From 84 to 108 days of age the pigs fed with Control-soy and Iceberg feed, had the same ADFI and ADG, worsening in pigs fed with Luna and Cartouche (P < 0.05). The FCR was similar in diets Control-soy and Iceberg, occupying an intermediate position in Cartouche and worse in pigs fed with Luna (P < 0.001). From 109-127 days of age the ADG and FCR were equal, with higher ADFI in pigs fed with Control-soy and Iceberg, regarding pigs fed with Cartouche and Luna (P < 0.05). There was no difference in the finishing phase (128-167 days of age). In global period, the ADFI and ADG were higher in pigs that ate Control-soy and Iceberg, and worse in those who ate Cartouche and Luna. The FCR was the same in all treatments. No significant differences were observed in the data related to weight and carcass yield, main lean cuts (ham, shoulder and loin chop) and intramuscular fat loin content and major fatty acids proportion (C16:0, C18:0, C18:1n-9) of subcutaneous fat. In experiment 4, made during the fattening period (60-171 days of age), was assessed the effect of diets with different levels of NV, and consequently of GEC, in the performance and quality of carcass and main lean cuts. There was a completely randomized design with four dietary treatments differing in percentage of NV: 0%, 5%, 15% and 25%, with 12 replicates per treatment and four pigs each. Treatment with 5% improved the ADG at the end of the fattening phase (152 days of age) and, together with 0%, showed the most favorable body weight and FCR at the end of the trial (171 days of age). Similarly, the weight and performance of carcass were higher for pigs fed with diets 0% and 5% (P < 0.05). Diets with 15 and 25% worsened the productive and carcass results. The weight of the main lean cuts (ham, shoulder and loin chop) was significantly higher in 0% and 5% vs 15% and 25%.The diet 25% was the worst of all. By contrast the performance of ham and loin chop was higher in pigs fed with diets 25% and 15%, that those who ate diets with 5% and 0% (P < 0.001); the results of shoulder performance were reversed, being greater in pigs feed with diets 0% and 5% (P < 0.001). Polynomial regression equations were obtained to estimate the percentage of NV and GEC more favorable from the point of view of production, and orthogonal contrasts between treatments.

Influence of castration on growth performance and carcass and meat quality of heavy female pigs

The main objetive of this Doctoral Thesis was to study the influence of female castration and pig sex on growth performance and carcass and meat quality of white pigs slaughtered at different final weights. Three experiments (Exp.) were conducted. In Exp. 1, a total of 200 (Landrace * Large White dam x Pietrain * Large White sire) gilts of 50 ± 3 days of age (23.3 ± 1.47 kg BW) was used to investigate the effects of castration (intact females, IF vs. castrated feamles, CF) and slaughter weight (106 vs. 122 kg BW) on productive performance and carcass and meat quality. There were four experimental treatments arranged as a 2 x 2 factorial and 5 replicates of 10 pigs each per treatment. Half of the gilts were ovariectomized at 58 d of age (8 days after the beginning of the trial; 29.8 ± 1.64 kg BW) whereas the other half remained intact. Meat samples were taken at m. Longissimus thoracis at the level of the last rib and subcutaneous fat samples were taken at the tail insertion. For the entire experiment period, CF had higher BW gain (P<0.05) and backfat and m. Gluteus medius (GM) fat thickness (P<0.001) than IF. However, IF had higher loin and trimmed primal cut yields (P<0.05) than CF. Meat quality was similar for IF and CF but the proportion of linoleic acid in subcutaneous fat was higher (P<0.001) for IF. Pigs slaughtered at 122 kg BW had higher (P<0.001) feed intake and poorer feed efficiency than pigs slaughtered at 106 kg BW. An increase in slaughter weight (SW) improved (P<0.001) carcass yield but decreased (P<0.05) trimmed primal cut yield. Meat from females slaughtered at the heavier BW was redder (a*; P<0.001) and had more (P<0.01) intramuscular fat and less thawing (P<0.05) and cooking (P<0.10) loss than meat from females slaughtered at the lighter BW. Also, females slaughtered at 122 kg BW had less (P<0.01) linoleic acid content in the subcutaneous fat than pigs slaughtered at 106 kg BW. Castration of gilts and slaughtering at heavier BW might be useful practices for the production of heavy pigs destined to the dry cured industry in which a certain amount of fat in the carcass is required. In contrast, when the carcasses are destined to fresh meat production, IF slaughtered at 106 kg BW are a more efficient alternative. In Exp. 2, crossbred pigs (n=240) from Pietrain*Large White sires mated to Landrace*Large White dams with an average of 100 d of age (60.5 ± 2.3 kg) were used to investigate the effects of gender and slaughter weight (SW) on growth performance and carcass and meat quality characteristics. There were 6 treatments arranged factorially with 3 genders (IF vs. CF vs.castrated males, CM) and 2 SW (114 vs. 122 kg BW). Each of the 6 combinations of treatments was replicated 4 times and the experimental unit was a pen with 10 pigs. Castrated males and CF ate more feed, grew faster and had more carcass backfat depth and fat thickness at the GM muscle, but lower loin yield than IF (P<0.05). In addition, CF and CM had more intramuscular fat (P<0.05) and less linoleic acid content in the subcutaneous fat (P<0.01) than IF. Pigs slaughtered at 122 kg BW had lower ADG (P<0.05), poor gain-to-feed ratio (P<0.05), and more GM fat than pigs slaughtered at 114 kg BW (P < 0.05). It is concluded that CF and CM had similar productive performance and meat quality characteristics when slaughtered at the same age, and that the castration of females improved daily gains and increased weight and fat content of primal cuts with respect to IF. Therefore, castration of females is recommended in pigs destined to the dry-cured industry because of the beneficial effects on the quality of the primal cuts. In Exp. 3, the effects of gender and castration of females (IF vs. CF vs. CM) on performance and carcass and meat quality were studied in crossbred pigs (Landrace x Large White dams x Duroc sires) slaughtered at 119.2 (trial 1) or 131.6 (trial 2) kg BW. Intact females had better feed conversion and less carcass fat than CF and CM. Trimmed shoulder yield was higher for CM than for CF with IF being intermediate. Primal cut yield and meat quality, however were similar for all treatments. Proportion of linoleic acid in backfat was lower for CF than for IF or CM, and the differences were significant in pigs slaughtered witn 131.6 kg BW. The higher fat content and the fatty acid profile favour the use of CF and CM over IF for the production of heavy pigs destined to the dry-cured industry.

Glycerin and lecithin inclusion in diets for brown egg-layinghens: Effects on egg production and nutrient digestibility

The effects of the inclusion of raw glycerin (GLYC) and lecithin in the diet on egg production,egg quality and total tract apparent retention (TTAR) of dietary components was studied inbrown egg-laying hens from 23 to 51 wk of age. The experimental design was completelyrandomized with six diets combined as a 2 × 3 factorial with two levels of GLYC (0 vs.70 g/kg) and three animal fat to lecithin ratios (40:0, 20:20 and 0:40 g/kg). Each treatmentwas replicated eight times and the experimental unit was a cage with ten hens. Productionwas recorded by replicate every 28-d period and cumulatively. For the entire experiment,the inclusion of GLYC in the diet hindered feed conversion ratio per kilogram of eggs (2.071vs. 2.039; P < 0.05) but did not affect any of the other production or egg quality traits studied.The replacement of animal fat by lecithin (40:0, 20:20 and 0:40 g/kg) increased egg weight(60.1, 60.7 and 61.8 g, respectively; P < 0.001) and egg mass production (56.8, 57.5 and58.8 g/d, respectively; P < 0.01) and improved yolk color as measured by the DSM colorfan (9.2, 9.2 and 9.5, respectively; P < 0.001) and feed conversion ratio per kilogram of eggs(2.072, 2.068 and 2.027, respectively; P < 0.05). Feed intake, egg production and body weightgain, however, were not affected. The inclusion of GLYC in the diet did not affect nutrientretention but lecithin inclusion improved TTAR of dry matter (P < 0.05), organic matter(P < 0.05), ether extract (P < 0.001) and gross energy (P < 0.001). In summary, the inclusionof 70 g glycerol/kg diet hindered feed conversion ratio per kilogram of eggs but did notaffect any other production or digestibility trait. The replacement of animal fat by lecithinimproved egg weight, egg yolk color and nutrient digestibility. Consequently, lecithin canbe used as a lipid source in laying hen diets with beneficial effects on egg production

Effect of level of fiber of the rearing phase diets on egg production, digestive tract traits, and body measurements of brown egg-laying hens fed diets differing in energy concentration

This research studied the effects of additional fiber in the rearing phase diets on egg production, gastrointestinal tract (GIT) traits, and body measurements of brown egg-laying hens fed diets varying in energy concentration from 17 to 46 wk of age. The experiment was completely randomized with 10 treatments arranged as a 5 × 2 factorial with 5 rearing phase diets and 2 laying phase diets. During the rearing phase, treatments consisted of a control diet based on cereals and soybean meal and 4 additional diets with a combination of 2 fiber sources (cereal straw and sugar beet pulp, SBP) at 2 levels (2 and 4%). During the laying phase, diets differed in energy content (2,650 vs. 2,750 kcal AMEn/kg) but had the same amino acid content per unit of energy. The rearing diet did not affect any production trait except egg production that was lower in birds fed SBP than in birds fed straw (91.6 and 94.1%, respectively; P < 0.05). Laying hens fed the high energy diet had lower feed intake (P < 0.001), better feed conversion (P < 0.01), and greater BW gain (P < 0.05) than hens fed the low energy diet but egg production and egg weight were not affected. At 46 wk of age, none of the GIT traits was affected by previous dietary treatment. At this age, hen BW was positively related with body length (r = 0.500; P < 0.01), tarsus length (r = 0.758; P < 0.001), and body mass index (r = 0.762; P < 0.001) but no effects of type of diet on these traits were detected. In summary, the inclusion of up to 4% of a fiber source in the rearing diets did not affect GIT development of the hens but SBP reduced egg production. An increase in the energy content of the laying phase diet reduced ADFI and improved feed efficiency but did not affect any of the other traits studied.

Influence of body weight of the pullets at hatch on egg production at the onset of the subsequent laying period

We studied the influence of pre-incubation weight of eggs (EW) laid by 24 wk-old brown laying breeders on egg production from 18 (start of egg production) to 22 wk of age (average egg production across EW treatments of 87.8%). The experiment consisted in 7 treatments based on the initial EW (47 to 53 g with 1 g difference between groups) Average BW of the extreme groups varied at hatching from 32.5 to 35.4 g, respectively. Feed intake, egg production, and egg weight were recorded weekly by replicate as well as for the entire experiment (18 to 22 wk of age). Hens were weighed by replicate at the beginning and at the end of the experiment. From these data, ADFI, egg production, egg weight, egg mass, feed conversion ratio per kilogram of eggs and per dozen of eggs, and BW gain were calculated by week and for the entire experiment. Also, the number of dirty, broken, and shell-less eggs was recorded daily by replicate in all eggs produced. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized design with 7 treatments differing in the initial pre-hatching EW. Effects of EW on the variables studied were partitioned into linear and quadratic components. EW did not affect the age at which pullets reached 50% egg production, cumulative egg production, or BW gain of the hens from 18 to 22 wk of age. Egg weight and the proportion of dirty, broken, and shell-less eggs were not affected by the BW of the pullets at hatching. In summary, small eggs (>47 g) laid by young, healthy laying breeders, can be used successfully to produce high quality pullets

Piensos ricos en ácidos grasos poliinsaturados n-3 aumentan la concentración de progesterona plasmática durante la gestación y mejoran la fertilidad y el tamaño de los nacidos vivos en conejas

One hundred and twenty seven rabbit does were fed ad libitum from rearing until 2nd weaning, two isofibrous, isoenergetic and isoproteic diets supplemented with two different fat sources: 3% lard for diet C (control) or 6% of a supplement (Optomega-50; Optivite International Ltd., España) containing a 50% of ether extract and 38% of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids for diet P (PUFA n-3). Does were inseminated at 4.5 months of age and then, at 32 days after the first parturition. Fertility and prolificacy were determined. Blood samples were obtained in 12 does of each group at -7, 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of pregnancy to determine plasma progesterone. In addition, 10 litters from each group with 10-11 kits, one day old, were measured determining their length, and their biparietal and thoracic diameters. Feed intake and prolificacy were similar in both groups. Supplementation with PUFA n-3 improved fertility at second AI. Progesterone concentrations on day 7 and 14 of pregnancy in PUFA does, and the size of their kits at birth were also increased.

Efeito da dieta líquida sobre o desempenho de leitões neonatos e seus reflexos na matriz suína

Para ser competitivo atualmente, o sistema intensivo de produção de suínos deve estar pautado na eficiência. A fim de obter esta eficiência produtiva, o avanço genético das ultimas décadas buscou por fêmeas suínas cada vez mais prolíficas. A prolificidade contudo, veio acompanhada por uma queda no consumo voluntário de alimento por parte das fêmeas, bem como um aumento na produção de leite, e no número de leitões nascidos; o aumento da leitegada, levou a uma redução do peso ao nascimento e um aumento da heterogeneidade entre os leitões. Como forma de contornar o problema, são oferecidas aos leitões dietas formuladas com ingredientes de alto valor biológico a partir dos sete dias de vida, procurando suprir a demanda nutricional do animal durante o período de amamentação e preparar seu sistema digestório para o desmame. Contudo, grande parte das dietas formuladas para os leitões neonatos são oferecidas aos animais em sua forma sólida. Neste projeto, avaliamos os efeitos sobre a performance de leitões neonatos e da performance reprodutiva da fêmea suína do oferecimento de uma dieta líquida para os leitões neonatos, dieta esta que foi disponibilizada aos animais através de um sistema automatizado que realizou a mistura do alimento em sua forma sólida com a água. Para tais avaliações, os leitões ao nascer foram alocados em três grupos distintos, recebendo a dieta em sua forma líquida, em sua forma sólida ou então apenas o leite materno. Foram avaliadas variáveis zootécnicas relacionadas aos leitões, como peso, ganho diário de peso, consumo de ração, conversão alimentar, mortalidade pré-desmame; frequência de dias com diarreia nos leitões em fase de maternidade e creche. Foram eutanasiados leitões aos 14 e aos 28 dias de idade, para a realização do exame morfométrico da altura de vilosidade, profundidade de cripta e a relação entre a altura de vilosidade e profundidade de cripta nas porções do duodeno, jejuno e íleo. Avaliamos também o impacto do uso da dieta líquida sobre o catabolismo sofrido pela fêmea durante a lactação, através da aferição do peso e da espessura de toucinho desta fêmeas durante o período lactacional e também a duração do intervalo desmame estro e a duração do estro subsequente ao desmame. Não verificamos contudo um melhor desempenho zootécnico dos leitões nos períodos de maternidade e creche, tão pouco uma alteração favorável quanto a frequência de dias com diarreia nas duas fases em relação aos leitões que não consumiram nenhum tipo de suplementação. Quanto aos parâmetros morfométricos do intestino delgado, apenas aos 28 dias de idade os leitões que receberam a dieta líquida apresentaram maiores alturas de vilosidades no íleo em relação aos leitões que consumiram a dieta sólida e os animais do grupo controle apresentaram menores profundidades de cripta no mesmo seguimento e idade quando comparados aos demais animais. Contudo, estas alterações não foram o suficiente para garantir diferenças na relação altura de vilosidade:profundidade de cripta. E ainda, a suplementação independente de sua forma não reduziu o catabolismo sofrido pela fêmea suína durante a lactação

Inoculação com leveduras e exposição ao ar modificam o valor nutritivo de silagem de milho para vacas leiteiras

Silagens de milho são mais propensas à deterioração quando expostas ao ar. As leveduras assimiladoras de ácido lático são frequentemente os primeiros microrganismos a iniciar a deterioração aeróbia nas silagens. Alguns estudos reportam que silagem de milho aerobicamente instável está associada à redução no consumo, na produção de leite e depressão no teor de gordura do leite. Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a influência de inoculação de leveduras (Pichia norvegensis) e a exposição ao ar por 48 horas sobre o valor nutritivo das silagens e o desempenho de vacas leiteiras. O milho foi colhido com 34% de MS, tratado sem (Controle) ou com P. norvegensis, na dose 1×105 ufc/g MV (Levedura) e armazenado silos tipo bolsa (40 t/silo). Após 123 dias de armazenamento, os silos foram abertos e a silagem foi fornecida para vacas leiteiras. Diariamente, as silagens foram retiradas e fornecidas imediatamente (Fresca) ou após 48 horas de exposição (Exposta). Vinte vacas Holandesas foram distribuídas em 5 quadrados latinos replicados 4×4, com períodos de 21 dias (15 d para adaptação + 6 d para amostragem). As dietas foram formuladas para conter: 53% silagem de milho, 8% caroço de algodão, 18% farelo de soja, 9,5% polpa cítrica, 9% milho seco moído e 2,5% premix vitamínico e mineral. Os quatro tratamentos foram assim constituídos: silagem controle fresca (CF), silagem controle exposta (CE), silagem inoculada com levedura fresca (LF) e silagem inoculada com levedura exposta (LE). A inoculação com levedura aumentou as perdas de matéria seca (P<0,001) e reduziu o tempo de estabilidade aeróbia (P=0,03) das silagens de milho. No ensaio de desempenho animal, reduziu a produção de leite corrigida para 3,5% de gordura (P=0,03) e a eficiência alimentar (ELL leite/CMS) (P<0,01), porém não alterou o teor de gordura do leite. Quanto aos efeitos da exposição ao ar por 48 horas, estes reduziram a concentração de ácido lático (P<0,001), que consequentemente aumentou o pH (P=0,004) das silagens, além de reduzir outros produtos de fermentação. A exposição também reduziu a produção de leite corrigido para gordura (P=0,02) e a eficiência alimentar (P=0,10). Nenhum tratamento alterou o consumo de MS. Houve tendência para redução da digestibilidade da MS e FDN e do NDT, quando as silagens foram expostas ao ar. A inoculação com leveduras e a exposição ao ar por 48 horas deprimem o desempenho animal através da redução no valor nutritivo das silagens de milho.

Determinação de biomarcadores de aflatoxina B1 e aplicabilidade na avaliação da eficiência de adsorventes em frangos de corte

As aflatoxinas são metabólitos secundários produzidos por fungos toxigênicos das espécies Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus e A. nomius. São amplamente encontradas em matérias-primas de rações animais, em especial o milho, e têm a capacidade de levar a quadros clínicos agudos ou crônicos de aflatoxicose, caracterizados por, desde a morte por hepatite aguda até a diminuição do desempenho zootécnico por diminuição de peso ou consumo de ração. A aflatoxina B1 tem sido considerada o metabólito mais perigoso, uma vez que possui alto poder hepatotóxico, além de ser mutagênica e carcinogênica. Atualmente a ciência trabalha rumo à descoberta de substâncias que sejam indicadoras confiáveis de contaminação por componentes tóxicos em homens e em animais, os chamados biomarcadores, que medem uma mudança celular, biológica ou molecular em um meio biológico (tecidos humanos, células ou fluídos) que fornecem informação a respeito de uma doença ou exposição a uma determinada substância. Sua detecção pode auxiliar na identificação, no diagnóstico e no tratamento de indivíduos afetados que podem estar sob risco, mas ainda não exibem os sintomas. Sendo assim, com o auxílio de análises que confirmem a patogenicidade da aflatoxina B1 (determinação da atividade de enzimas hepáticas, da avaliação da função renal, de hematologia, da dosagem de minerais séricos e da avaliação de desempenho zootécnico), o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a aplicabilidade da determinação de resíduos hepáticos de aflatoxinas e do aduto sérico AFB1-lisina na avaliação da eficiência de adsorventes em frangos de corte. Utilizou-se 240 pintos de 1 dia, machos, de linhagem Cobb 500®, distribuídos aleatoriamente em 4 dietas experimentais: Controle Negativo: Ração Basal (RB); RB + 0,5% de adsorvente ((aluminosilicato de cálcio e sódio hidratado/HSCAS); RB + 0,5% de adsorvente + 500 µg de AFB1/kg de ração e; RB + 500 µg de AFB1/kg de ração.Os resultados experimentais mostram que o efeito deletério da AFB1, na concentração utilizada, é mais pronunciado que os efeitos protetores do HSCAS sobre os parâmetros de saúde dos animais. Não houve ação efetiva do adsorvente utilizado sobre quase nenhuma variável estudada, apenas para a redução das lesões histopatológicas em fígado, na redução da concentração de gama-glutamiltransferase (GGT), fósforo e aumento da contagem de hemáceas aos 21 dias de idade. Porém, influenciou positivamente a redução de resíduos hepáticos de aflatoxina G1 aos 21 dias e as concentrações de AFB1-lisina sérica aos 21 e aos 42 dias de idade. Estes dados são importantes porque permite concluir que, embora sintomatologicamente o HSCAS não tenha exercido função efetiva, molecularmente foi capaz de mostrar de eficácia sobre os alguns biomarcadores de aflatoxinas no organismo das aves

Efeito da substituição de plasma sanguíneo por levedura hidrolisada sobre rendimento e imunidade de leitões desmamados

O Experimento foi realizado com o objetivo de avaliar a substituição parcial e total de plasma bovino por levedura hidrolisada na dieta de leitões desmamados no período de 21 a 47 dias de idade. Foram utilizados 1600 leitões da linhagem PIC, distribuídos em blocos ao acaso, com quatro tratamentos. As dietas foram divididas em quatro fases (pré-inicial I 22 a 28 dias; pré-inicial II 29 a 35 dias; inicial I - 36 a 47 dias e inicial II 48 a 63 dias). A inclusão percentual, Plasma: Levedura, nas dietas foi: T1 (6:0; 4:0; 2:0 e 0:0); T2 (3: 4; 2: 3; 1: 2 e 0: 0); T3 (1,5: 6; 1: 4,5; 0,5: 3 e 0: 0) e T4 (0: 8; 0: 6; 0: 4 e 0: 0). Cada tratamento teve 10 repetições (cinco de machos e cinco de fêmeas) totalizando 40 unidades experimentais com 40 animais cada. As variáveis zootécnicas avaliadas durante o período experimental foram: consumo de ração, ganho de peso, e conversão alimentar. Foram tomadas amostras de sangue de 5 animais por tratamento no dia de início do experimento, e de 10 animais por tratamento 25 dias depois. Foram quantificadas a IgA e a IgG. Os dados obtidos foram submetidos a análise de variância ANOVA, utilizando-se o teste Tukey para comparação das médias ao nível de significância de 5% utilizando o pacote estatístico SAS. Não houve diferença estatística nas quantidades de Ig A e Ig G circulante, nem na variação destas imunoglobulinas no tempo, entre os tratamentos. Considerando a análise dos dados conclui-se que nas condições estudadas, a utilização da relação percentual de (1,5: 6; 1: 4,5; 0,5: 3 e 0: 0) de plasma: levedura hidrolisada resultou um maior consumo de ração e ganho de peso dos animais, em comparação às outras proporções, e consequentemente podendo trazer um maior lucro para o produtor

Evaluating Spirulina as a protein source in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) grow-out diets

Aquaculture growth has intensified the need for a diversification of nutritionally appropriate aquafeed ingredients. The purpose of this study was to evaluate Spirulina, a blue-green microalgae, and soybean meal as the sole protein sources in grow-out Tilapia diets. We constructed 3 experimental diets with soybean meal and 0,15, 30, and 45% Spirulina (SBM, SP15, SP30, and SP45 respectively) as their main protein sources. We compared these diets to a commercial Tilapia diet (CC). Additionally, to evaluate the benefit of fishmeal inclusion, fishmeal was added (2 and 10%) to the most successful Spirulina containing diet (FM2, FM10). We evaluated these experimental diets based on their physical properties, palatability, growth potential, waste production, and overall cost. No significant differences in growth performance were found between any of the diets. Total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) and total phosphorus (TP) levels in each tank were significantly affected by diet (p<0.05). CC had significantly higher TP than the experimental diets and SP15 had significantly higher TAN than the other diets. Only CC was found to be significantly more palatable than the experimental diets, and Spirulina inclusion was inversely correlated to pellet stability. Lastly, SP15 was the most profitable experimental diet. We recommend eliminating fishmeal from grow-out Tilapia diets in favour of soybean meal and Spirulina. Spirulina should, however, be limited to 15% to avoid the negative effects it has on stability and profitability, and its possible effect on feed intake.

Endogenous amino acid flow in the avian ileum: quantification using three techniques

The aim of the present study was to compare the protein-free diet, guanidinated casein (GuC) and enzyme hydrolysed casein (EHC) methods for the quantification of endogenous amino acid (AA) flow in the avian ileum. Growing broiler chickens (5 weeks old) were used. All three assay diets were based on dextrose, and in the GuC and EHC diets GuC or EHC were the sole source of N. Endogenous AA flows determined with the use of protein-free diet were considerably lower (P < 0.05) than those determined by the GuC and EHC methods. The, total endogenous AA flows determined by the GuC and EHC methods were almost 3-fold greater (P < 0.05) than those determined by the protein-free diet. The endogenous AA values obtained from GuC and EHC methods were similar (P >0.05), except for the flow of arginine, which was lower (P < 0.05) in the EHC method. Glutamic acid, aspartic acid, threonine and glycine were the predominant endogenous AA present in digesta from the distal ileum. The contents of methionine, histidine and cystine were lower compared with other AA. The method of determination had no effect on the AA composition of endogenous protein, except for threonine, glutamic acid, lysine, arginine and cystine. The concentrations of threonine and arginine were lower (P < 0.05) and that of lysine was higher (P < 0.05) with the EHC method compared with the other two methods. The concentration of glutamic acid was greater (P < 0.05) and that of cystine was lower (P < 0.05) in the EHC and GuC methods compared with the protein-free diet method. The results showed that the ileal endogenous flows of N and AA are markedly enhanced by the presence of protein and peptides, above those determined following feeding of a protein-free diet. It is concluded that the use of EHC and GuC methods enables the measurement of ileal endogenous losses in chickens under normal physiological conditions.

Feeding strategies for grain-fed cattle in a hot environment

Six Bos taurus (Hereford) steers (body weight 324 22 kg) were used in a 45-day study with a replicated 3 x 3 Latin-square design. Three treatments [ad libitum feeding (ADLIB); limit feeding, 85% of ad libitum (LIMIT); bunk management feeding where steers were only given access to feed from 1600 to 0800 hours the following day (BUNK)] were imposed over 3 periods, with 2 steers assigned to each treatment in each period. Cattle were managed in a temperature-controlled metabolism unit and were exposed to both thermoneutral (17.7degreesC-26.1degreesC) and hot (16.7degreesC-32.9degreesC) environmental conditions. By design, during the thermoneutral period, the ADLIB cattle displayed greater intake (P < 0.05) than the LIMIT group, with the BUNK group being intermediate. However, during the hot period, both the LIMIT and BUNK treatment groups increased feed intake 4-5%, whereas feed intake of the ADLIB treatment group declined nearly 2%. During both periods respiration rate (RR, breath/min) followed the same pattern that was observed for feed intake, with the greatest (P < 0.05) RR found in the ADLIB treatment group (81.09 and 109.55, thermoneutral and hot, respectively) and lowest (P < 0.05) RR in the LIMIT treatment group (74.47 and 102.76, thermoneutral and hot, respectively). Rectal temperature (RT) did not differ among treatments during the thermoneutral period or the first hot day, although during the thermoneutral period the ADLIB treatment group did tend to display a lower RT, possibly as a result of other physiological processes (pulse rate and RR) aiding to keep RT lower. During the hot period, differences in RT were found on Day 5, with the LIMIT cattle having lower (P < 0.10) RT (38.92degreesC) than the ADLIB (39.18degreesC) cattle, with BUNK cattle RT (39.14degreesC) being intermediate. However, when hourly data were examined, the ADLIB cattle had greater(P < 0.05) RT than the BUNK and LIMIT at 1800 hours and greater RT (P < 0.05) than the LIMIT group at 1400, 1500, and 1600 hours. Clearly, a change in diurnal RT pattern was obtained by using the LIMIT and BUNK feeding regimen. Both of these groups displayed a peak RT during the hot conditions, between 2100 and 2200 hours, whereas the ADLIB group displayed a peak RT between 1400 and 1500 hours, a time very close to when peak climatic stress occurs. Based on these results it is apparent that feedlot managers could alleviate the effects of adverse hot weather on cattle by utilising either a limit-feeding regimen or altering bunk management practices to prevent feed from being consumed several hours prior to the hottest portion of the day.