X-ray absorption spectroscopy study on La0.6Sr0.4CoO3 and La0.6Sr0.4Co1¡yFeyO3 nanotubes and nanorods for IT-SOFC cathodes.

In the last years, extensive research has been devoted to develop novel materials and structures with high electrochemical performance for intermediate-temperatures solid-oxide fuel cells (IT-SOFCs) electrodes. In recent works, we have investigated the structural and electrochemical properties of La0:6Sr0:4CoO3 (LSCO) and La0:6Sr0:4Co1¡yFeyO3 (LSCFO) nanostructured cathodes, finding that they exhibit excellent electrocatalytic properties for the oxygen reduction reaction [1,2]. These materials were prepared by a pore-wetting technique using polycarbonate porous membranes as templates. Two average pore sizes were used: 200 nm and 800 nm. Our scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) study showed that the lower pore size yielded nanorods, while nanotubes were obtained with the bigger pore size. All the samples were calcined at 1000oC in order to produce materials with the desired perovskite-type crystal structure. In this work, we analyze the oxidation states of Co and Fe and the local atomic order of LSCO and LSCFO nanotubes and nanowires for various compositions. For this pur- pose we performed XANES and EXAFS studies on both Co and Fe K edges. These measurements were carried out at the D08B-XAFS2 beamline of the Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNLS). XANES spectroscopy showed that Co and Fe only change slightly their oxidation state upon Fe addition. Surprisingly, XANES results indicated that the content of oxygen vacancies is low, even though it is well-known that these materials are mixed ionic-electronic conductors. EXAFS results were consistent with those expected according to the rhombohedral crystal structure determined in previous X-ray powder dffraction investigations. [1] M.G. Bellino et al, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129 (2007) 3066 [2] J.G. Sacanell et al., J. Power Sources 195 (2010) 1786

In-situ XANES experiments on Ni K-edge in mesoporous ZrO2-CeO2:Ni.

Ordered mesoporous ZrO2-CeO2 mixed oxides are potential candidates for catalytic applications. These systems, used as anodes in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), may lead to better performance of SOFCs, due to an enhancement on surface area, aiming to achieve a lower working temperature. The aim of this studies is to evaluate the reduction capacity of Ni2+ to Ni in ZrO2-x(mol)%CeO2 (x=50 and 90) samples impregnated with 60(wt.)%NiO. The synthesis was made with Zr and Ce chloride precursors, HCl aqueous solution, Pluronic P123, NH4OH to adjust the pH (3-4) and a teflon autoclave to perform a hydrothermal treatment (80oC/48h). The samples were dried and calcined, until 540oC in N2 and 4 hours in air. The NiO impregnation was made with an ethanol dispersion of Ni(NO3)£6H2O. The powder was calcinated in air until 350oC for 2 hours. Temperature-resolved XANES data at the Ni K-edge were collected at the DXAS beam line of the LNLS in transmission mode, using a Si(111) monochromator and a CCD detector. Sample preparation consisted of mixing »6mg of the powder samples with boron nitride and pressing into pellets. The data were acquired during an experiment of temperature programmed reduction (TPR) under a 5% H2/He until 600oC and mixtures of 20%CH4:5%O2/He, at temperatures from 400 to 600oC. All the reactions were monitored with a mass spectrometer. The data was analyzed with a linear combination fit of 2 standards for each valence number using Athena software. The Ni K-edge experiments demonstrated that for both contents of CeO2, NiO embedded in the porous zirconia-ceria matrix reduces at lower temperatures than pure NiO, revealing that the ZrO2-CeO2 support improves the reduction of impregnated NiO. Ni was oxidized to NiO after all reactions with methane and oxygen. Hydrogenated carbonaceous species were detected, but under reducing conditions, the hydrocarbon compounds are removed. The reaction of total oxidation of methane CH4:O2 (1:2 ratio) was observed at lower temperatures (around 400oC) for both samples.

Structural and reduction studies of ZrO2-CeO2:Ni for application in SOFC anodes.

Zirconia-ceria solid-solutions are extensively used as promoters for three-way catalysts, which are applied in the control of NOx, CO and hydrocarbons emission from automotive exhausts. In addition, thesematerials can be used as anodes in solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) operated with hydrocarbons. There areonly few works on ZrO2-CeO2 ordered mesoporous materials for catalytic applications and for anodes inSOFCs. The interest in these anodes relies on the fact that ZrO2-CeO2materials are mixed ionic/electronic conductors in reducing atmosphere and, therefore, fuel oxidation is produced on its entire surface, while it only occurs in the [anode/electrolyte/gas] interface (triple-phase boundaries) for electronic conductors. In this work, a synthesis method was developed usingZr and Ce chloride precursors, HCl aqueous solution, Pluronic P123 as the structure directing agent, NH4OH to adjust the pH (3-4) and a Teflon autoclave to perform hydrothermal treatment (80ºC/48 hours). The samples were dried and calcined, until 540ºC in N2and 4 hours in air. The X-ray diffraction data showed that powders with higher CeO2 content are formed by a larger fraction of the cubic CeO2 phase, while for a lower CeO2content the major crystalline structure is the tetragonal ZrO2 phase. The NiO impregnation was made with an ethanol dispersion of Ni(NO3)×6H2O. The resulting powder was calcinated in air until 350ºC for 2 hours. Temperature-programmed reduction (TPR) data were collected in order to evaluate the reduction profiles of ZrO2-x%CeO2:Ni samples in H2/Ar atmosphere. Results showed lower reduction temperatures for all ceria content in samples comparing to a NiO standard.

Reaction intermediates of ethanol electro-oxidation on platinum investigated by SFG spectroscopy

Although electrochemical oxidation of simple organic molecules on metal catalysts is the basic ingredient of fuel cells, which have great technological potential as a renewable source of electrical energy, the detailed reaction mechanisms are in most cases not completely understood. Here, we investigate the ethanol-platinum interface in acidic aqueous solution using infrared-visible sum frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy and theoretical calculations of vibrational spectra in order to identify the intermediates present during the electro-oxidation of ethanol. The complex vibrational spectrum in the fingerprint region imply on the coexistence of several adsorbates. Based on spectra in ultra-high-vacuum (UHV) and electrochemical environment from the literature and our density functional theory (DFT) calculations of vibrational spectra, new adsorbed intermediates, never before observed with conventional infrared (IR) spectroscopy, are proposed here: g2-acetaldehyde, g2-acetyl, ethylidyne, monodentate acetate, methoxy, tertiary methanol derivative, COH residue, g2-formaldehyde, mono and bidentate formate, CH3 and CH2 residues. In addition, we present new evidences for an ethoxy intermediate, a secondary ethanol derivative and an acetyl species, and we confirm the presence of previously observed adsorbates: a tertiary ethanol derivative, bidentate acetate, and COad. These results indicate that the platinum surface is much more reactive, and the reaction mechanism for ethanol electro-oxidation is considerably more complex than previously considered. This might be also true for many other molecule-catalyst systems.

Mass transport in polymers

The study of mass transport in polymeric membranes has grown in importance due to its potential application in many processes such as separation of gases and vapors, packaging, controlled drug release. The diffusion of a low molecular weight species in a polymer is often accompanied by other phenomena like swelling, reactions, stresses, that have not been investigated in all their aspects yet. Furthermore, novel materials have been developed that include inorganic fillers, reactive functional groups or ions, that make the scenery even more complicated. The present work focused on the experimental study of systems where the diffusion is accompanied by other processes; suitable models were also developed to describe the particular circumstances in order to understand the underlying concepts and be able to design the performances of the material. The effect of solvent-induced deformation in polymeric films during sorption processes was studied since the dilation, especially in constrained membranes, can cause the development of stresses and therefore early failures of the material. The bending beam technique was used to test the effects of the dilation and the stress induced in the polymer by penetrant diffusion. A model based on the laminate theory was developed that accounts for the swelling and is able to predict the stress that raise in the material. The addition of inorganic fillers affects the transport properties of polymeric films. Mixed matrix membranes based on fluorinated, high free volume matrices show attractive performances for separation purposes but there is a need for deeper investigation of the selectivity properties towards gases and vapors. A new procedure based on the NELF model was tested on the experimental data; it allows to predict solubility of every penetrant on the basis of data for one vapor. The method has proved to be useful also for the determination of the diffusion coefficient and for an estimation of the permeability in the composite materials. Oxygen scavenging systems can overcome lack of barrier properties in common polymers that forbids their application in sensitive applications as food packaging. The final goal of obtaining a membrane almost impermeable to oxygen leads to experimental times out of reach. Hence, a simple model was developed in order to describe the transport of oxygen in a membrane with also reactive groups and analyze the experimental data collected on SBS copolymers that show attractive scavenging capacity. Furthermore, a model for predicting the oxygen barrier behavior of a film formed as a blend of OSP in a common packaging material was built, considering particles capable of reactions with oxygen embedded in a non-reactive matrix. Perfluorosulphonic acid ionomers (PFSI) are capturing attention due to a high thermal and chemical resistance coupled with very peculiar transport properties, that make them appropriate to be used in fuel cells. The possible effect of different formation procedure was studied together with the swelling due to water sorption since both water uptake and dilation can dramatically affect the fuel cells performances. The water diffusion and sorption was studied with a FTIR-ATR spectrometer that can give deeper information on the bonds between water molecules and the sulphonic hydrophilic groups and, therefore, on the microstructure of the hydrated ionomer.

One-step elettrosintesi: un metodo alternativo per sintetizzare nanoparticelle di Pt

La maggiore richiesta energetica di questi anni, associata alla diminuzione delle riserve di combustibile fossile e ai problemi di inquinamento ambientale hanno spinto il settore scientifico verso la ricerca di nuovi dispositivi che presentino elevata efficienza e quantità di emissioni ridotta. Tra questi, le celle a combustibile (fuel cells) alimentate con idrogeno o molecole organiche come etanolo, acido formico e metanolo, hanno particolare rilevanza anche se attualmente risultano particolarmente costose. Una delle principali sfide di questi ultimi anni è ridurne i costi e aumentarne l'efficienza di conversione in energia. Per questo scopo molti sforzi vengono condotti verso l'ottimizzazione dei catalizzatori a base di Pt spostando l’attenzione verso sistemi nanostrutturati ad elevata attività catalitica e buona stabilità. Durante questo lavoro di tesi si è affrontato lo studio relativo alla preparazione di elettrodi modificati con PtNPs ottenute per elettrodeposizione, un metodo semplice ed efficace per poterne controllare i parametri di deposizione e crescita e per ottenere direttamente le nanoparticelle sulla superficie dell’elettrodo. Come materiale elettroattivo si è utilizzato un foglio di grafite, denominato (Pure Graphite Sheet = PGS). Tale superficie elettrodica, meno costosa e più conduttiva rispetto all’ITO, si presenta sotto forma di fogli flessibili resistenti ad alte temperature e ad ambienti corrosivi e quindi risulta conveniente qualora si pensi ad un suo utilizzo su scala industriale. In particolare è stato studiato come la variazione di alcuni parametri sperimentali quali: i) il tempo di elettrodeposizione e ii) la presenza di stabilizzanti tipo: KI, acido dodecil benzene sulfonico (DBSA), poli vinil pirrolidone (PVP) o poliossietilene ottilfenil etere (Triton-X100) e iii) la concentrazione degli stessi stabilizzanti, potessero influire sulle dimensioni ed eventualmente sulla morfologia delle PtNPs. in fase di elettrodeposizione. L’elettrosintesi è stata effettuata per via cronoamperometria. I film di PtNPs sono stati caratterizzati utilizzando tecniche di superficie quali microscopia a scansione elettronica (SEM) e Voltammetria Ciclica (CV). Al fine di valutare le capacità elettrocatalitiche delle diverse PtNPs ottenute si è studiata la reazione di ossidazione del metanolo in ambiente acido.

Produzione di idrogeno "on-board" mediante deidrogenazione catalitica di kerosene

L’H2 è attualmente un elemento di elevato interesse economico, con notevoli prospettive di sviluppo delle sue applicazioni. La sua produzione industriale supera attualmente i 55 ∙ 1010 m3/anno, avendo come maggiori utilizzatori (95% circa) i processi di produzione dell’ammoniaca e quelli di raffineria (in funzione delle sempre più stringenti normative ambientali). Inoltre, sono sempre più importanti le sue applicazioni come vettore energetico, in particolare nel settore dell’autotrazione, sia dirette (termochimiche) che indirette, come alimentazione delle fuel cells per la produzione di energia elettrica. L’importanza economica degli utilizzi dell’ H2 ha portato alla costruzione di una rete per la sua distribuzione di oltre 1050 km, che collega i siti di produzione ai principali utilizzatori (in Francia, Belgio, Olanda e Germania). Attualmente l’ H2 è prodotto in impianti di larga scala (circa 1000 m3/h) da combustibili fossili, in particolare metano, attraverso i processi di steam reforming ed ossidazione parziale catalitica, mentre su scala inferiore (circa 150 m3/h) trovano applicazione anche i processi di elettrolisi dell’acqua. Oltre a quella relativa allo sviluppo di processi per la produzione di H2 da fonti rinnovabili, una tematica grande interesse è quella relativa al suo stoccaggio, con una particolare attenzione ai sistemi destinati alle applicazioni nel settore automotivo o dei trasposti in generale. In questo lavoro di tesi, svolto nell’ambito del progetto europeo “Green Air” (7FP – Transport) in collaborazione (in particolare) con EADS (D), CNRS (F), Jonhson-Matthey (UK), EFCECO (D), CESA (E) e HyGEAR (NL), è stato affrontato uno studio preliminare della reazione di deidrogenazione di miscele di idrocarburi e di differenti kerosene per utilizzo aereonautico, finalizzato allo sviluppo di nuovi catalizzatori e dei relativi processi per la produzione di H2 “on board” utilizzando il kerosene avio per ottenere, utilizzando fuel cells, l’energia elettrica necessaria a far funzionare tutta la strumentazione ed i sistemi di comando di aeroplani della serie Airbus, con evidenti vantaggi dal punto di vista ponderale e delle emissioni.

Cluster-derived Gold/Iron catalysts for environmental applications

During the last years we assisted to an exponential growth of scientific discoveries for catalysis by gold and many applications have been found for Au-based catalysts. In the literature there are several studies concerning the use of gold-based catalysts for environmental applications and good results are reported for the catalytic combustion of different volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Recently it has also been established that gold-based catalysts are potentially capable of being effectively employed in fuel cells in order to remove CO traces by preferential CO oxidation in H2-rich streams. Bi-metallic catalysts have attracted increasing attention because of their markedly different properties from either of the costituent metals, and above all their enhanced catalytic activity, selectivity and stability. In the literature there are several studies demostrating the beneficial effect due to the addition of an iron component to gold supported catalysts in terms of enhanced activity, selectivity, resistence to deactivation and prolonged lifetime of the catalyst. In this work we tried to develop a methodology for the preparation of iron stabilized gold nanoparticles with controlled size and composition, particularly in terms of obtaining an intimate contact between different phases, since it is well known that the catalytic behaviour of multi-component supported catalysts is strongly influenced by the size of the metal particles and by their reciprocal interaction. Ligand stabilized metal clusters, with nanometric dimensions, are possible precursors for the preparation of catalytically active nanoparticles with controlled dimensions and compositions. Among these, metal carbonyl clusters are quite attractive, since they can be prepared with several different sizes and compositions and, moreover, they are decomposed under very mild conditions. A novel preparation method was developed during this thesis for the preparation of iron and gold/iron supported catalysts using bi-metallic carbonyl clusters as precursors of highly dispersed nanoparticles over TiO2 and CeO2, which are widely considered two of the most suitable supports for gold nanoparticles. Au/FeOx catalysts were prepared by employing the bi-metallic carbonyl cluster salts [NEt4]4[Au4Fe4(CO)16] (Fe/Au=1) and [NEt4][AuFe4(CO)16] (Fe/Au=4), and for comparison FeOx samples were prepared by employing the homometallic [NEt4][HFe3(CO)11] cluster. These clusters were prepared by Prof. Longoni research group (Department of Physical and Inorganic Chemistry- University of Bologna). Particular attention was dedicated to the optimization of a suitable thermal treatment in order to achieve, apart from a good Au and Fe metal dispersion, also the formation of appropriate species with good catalytic properties. A deep IR study was carried out in order to understand the physical interaction between clusters and different supports and detect the occurrence of chemical reactions between them at any stage of the preparation. The characterization by BET, XRD, TEM, H2-TPR, ICP-AES and XPS was performed in order to investigate the catalysts properties, whit particular attention to the interaction between Au and Fe and its influence on the catalytic activity. This novel preparation method resulted in small gold metallic nanoparticles surrounded by highly dispersed iron oxide species, essentially in an amorphous phase, on both TiO2 and CeO2. The results presented in this thesis confirmed that FeOx species can stabilize small Au particles, since keeping costant the gold content but introducing a higher iron amount a higher metal dispersion was achieved. Partial encapsulation of gold atoms by iron species was observed since the Au/Fe surface ratio was found much lower than bulk ratio and a strong interaction between gold and oxide species, both of iron oxide and supports, was achieved. The prepared catalysts were tested in the total oxidation of VOCs, using toluene and methanol as probe molecules for aromatics and alchols, respectively, and in the PROX reaction. Different performances were observed on titania and ceria catalysts, on both toluene and methanol combustion. Toluene combustion on titania catalyst was found to be enhanced increasing iron loading while a moderate effect on FeOx-Ti activity was achieved by Au addition. In this case toluene combustion was improved due to a higher oxygen mobility depending on enhanced oxygen activation by FeOx and Au/FeOx dispersed on titania. On the contrary ceria activity was strongly decreased in the presence of FeOx, while the introduction of gold was found to moderate the detrimental effect of iron species. In fact, excellent ceria performances are due to its ability to adsorb toluene and O2. Since toluene activation is the determining factor for its oxidation, the partial coverage of ceria sites, responsible of toluene adsorption, by FeOx species finely dispersed on the surface resulted in worse efficiency in toluene combustion. Better results were obtained for both ceria and titania catalysts on methanol total oxidation. In this case, the performances achieved on differently supported catalysts indicate that the oxygen mobility is the determining factor in this reaction. The introduction of gold on both TiO2 and CeO2 catalysts, lead to a higher oxygen mobility due to the weakening of both Fe-O and Ce-O bonds and consequently to enhanced methanol combustion. The catalytic activity was found to strongly depend on oxygen mobility and followed the same trend observed for catalysts reducibility. Regarding CO PROX reaction, it was observed that Au/FeOx titania catalysts are less active than ceria ones, due to the lower reducibility of titania compared to ceria. In fact the availability of lattice oxygen involved in PROX reaction is much higher in the latter catalysts. However, the CO PROX performances observed for ceria catalysts are not really high compared to data reported in literature, probably due to the very low Au/Fe surface ratio achieved with this preparation method. CO preferential oxidation was found to strongly depend on Au particle size but also on surface oxygen reducibility, depending on the different oxide species which can be formed using different thermal treatment conditions or varying the iron loading over the support.

Cellulose based Lithium ion polymer electrolytes for Lithium batteries

The separator membrane in batteries and fuel cells is of crucial importance for the function of these devices. In lithium ion batteries the separator membrane as well as the polymer matrix of the electrodes consists of polymer electrolytes which are lithium ion conductors. To overcome the disadvantage of currently used polymer electrolytes which are highly swollen with liquids and thus mechanically and electrochemically unstable, the goal of this work is a new generation of solid polymer electrolytes with a rigid backbone and a soft side chain structure. Moreover the novel material should be based on cheap substrates and its synthesis should not be complicated aiming at low overall costs. The new materials are based on hydroxypropylcellulose and oligoethyleneoxide derivatives as starting materials. The grafting of the oligoethyleneoxide side chains onto the cellulose was carried out following two synthetic methods. One is based on a bromide derivative and another based on p-toluolsulfonyl as a leaving group. The side chain reagents were prepared form tri(ethylene glycol) monoethyl ether. In order to improve the mechanical properties the materials were crosslinked. Two different conceptions have been engaged based on either urethane chemistry or photosensitive dimethyl-maleinimide derivatives. PEO - graft - cellulose derivatives with a high degree of substitution between 2,9 and 3,0 were blended with lithium trifluoromethane-sulfonate, lithium bis(trifluorosulfone)imide and lithium tetrafluoroborate. The molar ratios were in the range from 0,02 to 0,2 [Li]/[O]. The products have been characterized with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and laserlight scattering (LS) with respect to their degree of substitution and molecular weight. The effect of salt concentration on ionic conductivity, thermal behaviour and morphology has been investiga-ted with impedance spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA). The crosslinking reactions were controlled with dynamic mechanical analysis (DMS). The degree of substitution of our products is varying between 2,8 and 3,0 as determined by NMR. PEO - graft - cellulose derivatives are highly viscous liquids at room temperature with glass transition temperatures around 215 K. The glass transition temperature for the Lithium salt complexes of PEO - graft - cellulose deri-vatives increase with increasing salt content. The maximum conductivity at room temperature is about 10-4 and at 100°C around 10-3 Scm-1. The presence of lithium salt decreases the thermal stability of the complexes in comparison to pure PEO - graft - cellulose derivatives. Complexes heated over 140 – 150°C completely lose their ionic conductivity. The temperature dependence of the conductivity presented as Arrhenius-type plots for all samples is similar in shape and follows a VTF behaviour. This proofs that the ionic transport is closely related to the segmental motions of the polymer chains. Novel cellulose derivatives with grafted oligoethylen-oxide side chains with well-defined chemical structure and high side chain grafting density have been synthesized. Cellulose was chosen as stiff, rod like macromolecule for the backbone while oligoethylen-oxides are chosen as flexible side chains. A maximum grafting density of 3.0 have been obtained. The best conductivity reaches 10-3 Scm-1 at 100°C for a Li-triflate salt complex with a [Li]/[O] ratio of 0.8. The cross-linked complexes containing the lithium salts form elastomeric films with convenient mechanical stability. Our method of cellulose modification is based on relatively cheap and commercially available substrates and as such appears to be a promising alternative for industrial applications.

New catalysts for the water gas shift reaction at middle-temperature

H2 demand is continuously increasing since its many relevant applications, for example, in the ammonia production, refinery processes or fuel cells. The Water Gas Shift (WGS) reaction (CO + H2O = CO2 + H2 DeltaH = -41.1 kJ.mol-1) is a step in the H2 production, reducing significantly the CO content and increasing the H2 one in the gas mixtures obtained from steam reforming. Industrially, the reaction is carried out in two stages with different temperature: the first stage operates at high temperature (350-450 °C) using Fe-based catalysts, while the second one is performed at lower temperature (190-250 °C) over Cu-based catalysts. However, recently, an increasing interest emerges to develop new catalytic formulations, operating in a single-stage at middle temperature (MTS), while maintaining optimum characteristics of activity and stability. These formulations may be obtained by improving activity and selectivity of Fe-based catalysts or increasing thermal stability of Cu-based catalysts. In the present work, Cu-based catalysts (Cu/ZnO/Al2O3) prepared starting from hydrotalcite-type precursors show good homogeneity and very interesting physical properties, which worsen by increasing the Cu content. Among the catalysts with different Cu contents, the catalyst with 20 wt.% of Cu represents the best compromise to obtain high catalytic activity and stability. On these bases, the catalytic performances seem to depend on both metallic Cu surface area and synergetic interactions between Cu and ZnO. The increase of the Al content enhances the homogeneity of the precursors, leading to a higher Cu dispersion and consequent better catalytic performances. The catalyst with 20 wt.% of Cu and a molar ratio M(II)/M(III) of 2 shows a high activity also at 250 °C and a good stability at middle temperature. Thus, it may be considered an optimum catalyst for the WGS reaction at middle temperature (about 300 °C). Finally, by replacing 50 % (as at. ratio) of Zn by Mg (which is not active in the WGS reaction), better physical properties were observed, although associate with poor catalytic performances. This result confirms the important role of ZnO on the catalytic performances, favoring synergetic interactions with metallic Cu.

Anaerobic oxidation of ethanol over spinel mixed oxides: the first step in the steam-iron process for H2 production

The future hydrogen demand is expected to increase, both in existing industries (including upgrading of fossil fuels or ammonia production) and in new technologies, like fuel cells. Nowadays, hydrogen is obtained predominantly by steam reforming of methane, but it is well known that hydrocarbon based routes result in environmental problems and besides the market is dependent on the availability of this finite resource which is suffering of rapid depletion. Therefore, alternative processes using renewable sources like wind, solar energy and biomass, are now being considered for the production of hydrogen. One of those alternative methods is the so-called “steam-iron process” which consists in the reduction of a metal-oxide by hydrogen-containing feedstock, like ethanol for instance, and then the reduced material is reoxidized with water to produce “clean” hydrogen (water splitting). This kind of thermochemical cycles have been studied before but currently some important facts like the development of more active catalysts, the flexibility of the feedstock (including renewable bio-alcohols) and the fact that the purification of hydrogen could be avoided, have significantly increased the interest for this research topic. With the aim of increasing the understanding of the reactions that govern the steam-iron route to produce hydrogen, it is necessary to go into the molecular level. Spectroscopic methods are an important tool to extract information that could help in the development of more efficient materials and processes. In this research, ethanol was chosen as a reducing fuel and the main goal was to study its interaction with different catalysts having similar structure (spinels), to make a correlation with the composition and the mechanism of the anaerobic oxidation of the ethanol which is the first step of the steam-iron cycle. To accomplish this, diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRIFTS) was used to study the surface composition of the catalysts during the adsorption of ethanol and its transformation during the temperature program. Furthermore, mass spectrometry was used to monitor the desorbed products. The set of studied materials include Cu, Co and Ni ferrites which were also characterized by means of X-ray diffraction, surface area measurements, Raman spectroscopy, and temperature programmed reduction.

Wasserfreie Protonenleiter für Brennstoffzellen auf der Basis von Imidazol und Benzimidazol

Mit Hilfe von Brennstoffzellen wird eine effiziente Energieumwandlung von chemischer in elektrische Energie möglich. Die kommerziellen PEM-Brennstoffzellen benutzen Membra-nen, die zum Erreichen hoher Leitfähigkeiten eine wässrige Phase erfordern, in der der Proto-nentransport stattfindet. Somit wird die Betriebstemperatur durch den Siedepunkt des Wassers limitiert. Die verwendeten Pt-Katalysatoren zeigen bei niedrigen Temperaturen eine höhere Empfindlichkeit gegenüber CO, dass im Reformierungsprozess bei der Erzeugung von Was-serstoff entsteht. Austausch der wässrigen Phase gegen Heterozyklen, die ein zu Wasser ver-gleichbares Wasserstoffbrückennetzwerk aufbauen, in dem der Protonentransport stattfinden kann, ermöglicht eine höhere Betriebstemperatur. Durch das im Laufe des Brennstoffzellen-betriebs gebildete Wasser, können die Heterozyklen verdünnt bzw. komplett aus der Memb-ran ausgewaschen werden. Daher ist es erforderlich, die Ladungsträger an ein Polymerrück-grat zu binden, so dass sie eine hohe Beweglichkeit und Konzentration, die denen in der flüs-sigen Phase einer konventionellen Membran entsprechen, aufweisen. Diese Arbeit beschreibt die Synthese und Charakterisierung von Protonenleitern, die ohne eine flüssige Phase auskommen, da sie bereits protonische Leitfähigkeit als intrinsische Ei-genschaft zeigen. Es wurden verschiedene imidazol- bzw. benzimidazolhaltige Dimere und Polythiophene, in denen Benzimidazol in der Seitenkette über verschieden flexible Spacer mit dem Polymerrückgrat verbunden ist, synthetisiert. Die Materialien wurden in undotierten Zu-stand und nach Dotierung mit geringen Mengen Phosphorsäure umfassend charakterisiert und auf thermisches Verhalten, Stabilität und Leitfähigkeit untersucht. Die benzimidazolhaltigen Dimere weisen mit 250 °C die höchsten Zersetzungstemperaturen auf. Mit zunehmender Temperatur kann in allen Fällen eine Erhöhung der Leitfähigkeit beobachtet werden, die sich in der Arrhenius-Auftragung durch eine Gerade anpassen lässt, somit kann der Protonentrans-port durch einen Protonen-hüpfmechanismus beschrieben werden. Die höchste beobachtete Leitfähigkeit liegt im Bereich von 10-6 S/cm bei 160 °C. Durch Zusatz von Phosphorsäure kann die Leitfähigkeit z.T. um einige Größenordnungen gesteigert werden. Eine Ausnahme bilden die Polythiophene, die sowohl protonische als auch elektronische Leitfähigkeit besit-zen. Hier führt die Säure zu einer Lokalisierung der Ladungsträger, so dass die elektronische Leitfähigkeit eingeschränkt wird.

Deidrogenazione catalitica di cherosene per la produzione di H2 "on-board": studio della disattivazione dei catalizzatori

Questo lavoro di tesi è stato sviluppato nell’ambito del progetto europeo “GREEN AIR” (7FP – Transport), svolto in collaborazione con diversi enti europei, pubblici e privati. Si tratta di un programma finalizzato alla produzione di idrogeno “on – board” per deidrogenazione catalitica di cherosene avio, da alimentare ad un sistema di fuel cells per la produzione dell’energia elettrica necessaria al funzionamento della strumentazione e dei sistemi di comando degli aeroplani. In questo lavoro di tesi ci si è concentrati sullo studio dei meccanismi di reazione e disattivazione coinvolti nella reazione di deidrogenazione di carburanti. Sono stati studiati approfonditamente le caratteristiche peculiari della reazione di deidrogenazione di miscele complesse di idrocarburi, ponendo particolare attenzione ai meccanismi di disattivazione. Lo studio è stato affrontato, prima analizzando la disattivazione per formazione di depositi carboniosi, utilizzando catalizzatori classici per reazioni di deidrogenazione ed alimentando miscele di idrocarburi prive da zolfo, quindi la disattivazione data da quest'ultimo elemento proponendo una serie di catalizzatori a base di fosfuri. I primi studi si sono concentrati su sistemi Pt-Sn supportati su allumina, utilizzati industrialmente per la produzione di olefine leggere a partire da miscele semplici di alcani, il cui comportamento è noto, nella seconda parte sono stati presi in considerazione sistemi a base di CoP e Ni2P, originariamente progettati per la reazione di idrodesolforazione. In conclusione, è stato possibile individuare gli aspetti chiave relativi ai meccanismi di disattivazione dei sistemi catalitici tradizionalmente impiegati nella deidrogenazione. In particolare ha permesso di individuare interessanti possibilità per ridurre, attraverso la rigenerazione e la riduzione del fenomeno di disattivazione, l’impatto del costo del catalizzatore sul processo. Inoltre sono stati individuati sistemi alternativi per la produzione di idrogeno molto interessanti, mettendo in luce gli aspetti che necessitano di essere ancora approfonditi per ottimizzarne l’applicazione.

Anhydrous proton conducting polymer electrolytes based on polymeric ionic liquids

Imidazolium types of ionic liquids were immobilized by tethering it to acrylate backbone. These imidazolium salt containing acrylate monomers were polymerize at 70oC by free radical polymerization to give polymers poly(AcIm-n) with n being the side chain lenght. The chemical structure of the polymer electrolytes obtained by the described synthetic routes was investigated by NMR-spectroscopy. The polymers were doped with various amounts of H3PO4 and LiN(SO2CF3)2, to obtain poly(AcIm-n) x H3PO4 and poly(AcIm-2-Li) x LiN(SO2CF3)2. The TG curves show that the polymer electrolytes are thermally stable up to about 200◦C. DSC results indicates the softening effect of the length of the spacers (n) as well as phosphoric acid. The proton conductivity of the samples increase with x and reaches to 10-2 Scm-1 at 120oC for both poly(AcIm-2)2H3PO4 and poly(AcIm-6)2H3PO4. It was observed that the lithium ion conductivity of the poly(AcIm-2-Li) x LiN(SO2CF3)2 increases with blends (x) up to certain composition and then leveled off independently from blend content. The conductivity reaches to about 10-5 S cm-1 at 30oC and 10-3 at 100oC for poly(AcIm-2-Li) x LiN(SO2CF3)2 where x is 10. The phosphate and phosphoric acid functionality in the resulting polymers, poly(AcIm-n) x H3PO4, undergoes condensation leading to the formation of cross-linked materials at elevated temperature which may improve the mechanical properties to be used as membrane materials in fuel cells. High resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used to obtain information about hydrogen bonding in solids. The low Tg enhances molecular mobility and this leads to better resolved resonances in both the backbone region and side chain region. The mobile and immobile protons can be distinguished by comparing 1H MAS and 1H-DQF NMR spectra. The interaction of the protons which may contribute to the conductivity is observed from the 2D double quantum correlation (DQC) spectra.

Ionenleitfähigkeit in polymeren Matrizes – Synthese, Charakterisierung und Untersuchung dynamischer Prozesse von neuen Lithium- und Protonenleitern

Die vorliegende Dissertation befasst sich mit der Synthese, physikochemischen und polymerspezifischen Charakterisierung und insbesondere der impedanzspektroskopischen Untersuchung von sowohl neuartigen, solvensfreien lithiumionen- als auch protonenleitfähigen Polymermaterialien für potentielle Anwendungen in sekundären Lithiumionenbatterien bzw. in Hochtemperatur-Protonenaustauschmembran-Brennstoffzellen (engl.: proton exchange membrane fuel cell, auch: polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell, PEMFC). Beiden Typen von ionenleitfähigen Membranen liegt das gängige Prinzip der chemischen Anbindung einer für den Ionentransport verantwortlichen Seitengruppe an eine geeignete Polymerhauptkette zugrunde („Entkopplung“; auch Immobilisierung), welcher hinsichtlich Glasübergangstemperatur (Tg), elektrochemischer und thermischer Stabilität (Td) eine dynamisch entkoppelte, aber nicht minder bedeutsame Rolle zukommt. Die Transportaktivierung erfolgt in beiden Fällen thermisch. Im Falle der Protonenleiter liegt die zusätzliche Intention darin, eine Alternative aufzuzeigen, in der die Polymerhauptkette gekoppelt direkt am Protonentransportmechanismus beteiligt ist, d.h., dass der translatorisch diffusive Ionentransport entlang der Hauptkette stattfindet und nicht zwischen benachbarten Seitenketten. Ein Hauptaugenmerk der Untersuchungen liegt sowohl bei den lithiumionen- als auch den protonenleitfähigen Polymermembranen auf temperaturabhängigen dynamischen Prozessen der jeweiligen Ionenspezies in der polymeren Matrix, was die Ionenleitfähigkeit selbst, Relaxationsphänomene, die translatorische Ionendiffusion und im Falle der Protonenleiter etwaige mesomere Grenzstrukturübergänge umfasst. Lithiumionenleiter: Poly(meth)acrylate mit (2-Oxo-1,3-dioxolan)resten (Cyclocarbonat-) in der Seitenkette unterschiedlicher Spacerlänge wurden synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Die Leitfähigkeit s(,T) erreicht bei Poly(2-oxo-[1,3]dioxolan-4-yl)methylacrylat (PDOA): Lithium-bis-trifluormethansulfonimid (LiTFSI) (10:3) ca. 10^-3,5 S cm^-1 bei 150 °C. Weichmachen (Dotieren) mit äquimolaren Mengen an Propylencarbonat (PC) bewirkt in allen Fällen einen enormen Anstieg der Leitfähigkeit. Die höchsten Leitfähigkeiten von Mischungen dieser Polymere mit LiTFSI (und LiBOB) werden nicht beim System mit der niedrigsten Tg gefunden. Auch dient Tg nicht als Referenztemperatur (Tref) nach Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF), so dass eine WLF-Anpassung der Leitfähigkeitsdaten nur über einen modifizierten WLF-Algorithmus gelingt. Die ermittelten Tref liegen deutlich unterhalb von Tg bei Temperaturen, die charakteristisch für die Seitenkettenrelaxation sind („Einfrieren“). Dies legt nahe, dass der Relaxation der Seitenketten eine entscheidende Rolle im Li^+-Leitfähigkeitsmechanismus zukommt. Die Li^+-Überführungszahlen tLi^+ in diesen Systemen schwanken zwischen 0,13 (40 °C) und 0,55 (160 °C). Protonenleiter: Polymere mit Barbitursäure- bzw. Hypoxanthinresten in der Seitenkette und Polyalkylenbiguanide unterschiedlicher Spacerlänge wurden synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Die Leitfähigkeit s(,T) erreicht bei Poly(2,4,6(1H,3H,5H)-trioxopyrimidin-5-yl)methacrylat (PTPMA) maximal ca. 10^-4,4 S cm^-1 bei 140 °C. Höhere Leitfähigkeiten sind nur durch Mischen mit aprotischen Lösungsmitteln erreichbar. Die höchste Leitfähigkeit wird im Falle der Polyalkylenbiguanide bei Polyethylenbiguanid (PEB) erzielt. Sie erreicht 10^-2,4 S cm^-1 bei 190 °C. Die Aktivierungsenergien EA der Polyalkylenbiguanide liegen (jeweils unterhalb von Tg) zwischen ca. 3 – 6 kJ mol^-1. In allen beobachteten Fällen dient Tg als Tref, so dass eine konventionelle WLF-Behandlung möglich ist und davon auszugehen ist, dass die Leitfähigkeit mit dem freien Volumen Vf korreliert.