Land Use and Transfer Plans in the U.S. Great Plains

In the next decades, aging farmers in the United States will make decisions that affect almost 1 billion acres of land. The future of this land will become more uncertain as farm transfer becomes more difficult, potentially changing the structure of agriculture through farm consolidation, changes in farm ownership and management, or taking land out of production. The Great Plains Population and Environment Project interviewed farmers and their spouses between 1997 and 1999. Farm Family Survey participants were ambiguous about their plans to leave farming, transfer land to others, and even long-term land use, largely due to concerns about the continued economic viability of farming. Participants living far from metropolitan areas expected to sell or rent to other farmers, while those near residential real-estate markets expected to sell to developers. Delays in planning for retirement and succession were common, further threatening the success of intergenerational transitions.

Cost Management Practices and Strategic Perspectives: a study in the construction industry of the State of Parana

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the cost management practices of building industry companies of Parana that follow the typology of Porter's strategies. The sample comprises member companies of the Association of Construction Industries of the State of Parana (PR-SINDUSCON) operating in the segment of residential buildings. The data were collected by means of questionnaires sent to 317 SINDUSCON members. 69 were returned and 54 used for our research. Exploratory Factorial Analysis of the data allowed us to identify two groups of cost management practices. Analyses suggest equality between the adopted cost management practices and the Cost Control Planning (CCP) practices among the companies of the Group 1, regardless of the generic strategy adopted. The companies of the Group 2 that adopted the differentiation strategy seem to use mainly the ACR cost management practice. Our findings differ from those obtained by Chenhall insofar as companies that adopt low cost strategies tend to use managerial controls focused on cost control and rigid budgetary controls.

Proposta de estrutura para o gerenciamento de projetos de revitaliza����o urbana

Os projetos de revitaliza����o urbana s��o realiza����es do poder p��blico a partir da identifica����o de ��reas degradadas ou que necessitam de projetos especiais. Para a sua execu����o, o governo precisa desenvolver uma estrutura gerencial especialmente organizada para este fim. Atualmente ainda n��o existe uma estrutura de gerenciamento s��lida o suficiente para ser utilizada como modelo e replicada em diferentes ��reas ou escalas no pa��s. Esta car��ncia est�� se tornando mais vis��vel em consequ��ncia do aumento das parcerias entre o poder p��blico e empresas privadas, viabilizando muitos destes projetos no Brasil mas que, em contrapartida, pressionam o governo a se movimentar para estabelecer uma estrutura eficiente a fim de execut��-los no mesmo ritmo que as empresas privadas imp��em no desenvolvimento de empreendimentos pr��prios. Assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo reconhecer os principais elementos que comp��em a estrutura de gerenciamento de um projeto p��blico de revitaliza����o urbana, levantando informa����es atrav��s da literatura, de tr��s projetos de revitaliza����o urbana j�� realizados no Brasil e no exterior, procurando extrair as boas pr��ticas1 , e propondo por fim, uma estrutura que permita servir como direcionamento para gerenciadoras ou partes interessadas, com a possibilidade de replica����o em diferentes escalas de projetos urbanos. Os resultados encontrados foram separados pelo presente autor em seis fases que, entendem-se relevantes para o planejamento macro da estrutura do ciclo de vida dos projetos de revitaliza����o urbana, sendo estes: (i) Fase de Inicia����o, (ii) Fase de Formula����o, (iii) Fase de Planejamento e Estrutura, (iv) Fase de Execu����o, (v) Fase de Monitoramento e Controle e (vi) Fase de Encerramento. O presente artigo �� parte de uma pesquisa mais abrangente e detalhada que constitui uma disserta����o de mestrado em andamento no programa de P��s-Gradua����o de Engenharia Civil da Escola Polit��cnica da USP.

Government Influence and the Failure of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac

In 2008 two government-sponsored enterprises, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, were placed into conservatorship due to insolvency. The financial bailout of the two publically traded corporations came at the expense of the American tax payer. This study investigates the relationship between direct and indirect government influence and the increasing risk taking of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac from the late 1990���s through their conservatorship in 2008. As government-sponsored enterprises Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have many special advantages that other publically traded companies did not possess. These advantages allowed Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to increase their profitability. Theoretical literature regarding Congress and the bureaucracy suggests that the actions of bureaucrats can be linked to the preferences of Congressional members because bureaucrats are responsive to potential threats or perceived threats from the legislature. This theory is applicable to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, and is used to explain why the government was able to directly and indirectly influence the government-sponsored enterprises. Overall this investigation has determined that the United States government pursued a clear mission that determined to increase the availability of housing to all Americans, specifically to low-income and under-served individuals, through the use of the government-sponsored enterprises. Despite this link there is no conclusive data to show that the pursuit of this housing mission led Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to operate in riskier business segments. This study has also found that motivation regarding profit-seeking and compensation structure provide a more plausible explanation for why the government-sponsored enterprises began to engage in riskier business practices that led to their insolvency.

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS AS ENFRAMING OR EMPOWERING: HOW LEAN AND SIX SIGMA DEFINE TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

In this project, I examine current forms of scientific management systems, Lean and Six Sigma, as they relate to technical communication. With the goal of breaking work up into standardized processes in order to cut costs and increase efficiency, Lean, Six Sigma and Lean Six Sigma hybrid systems are increasingly applied beyond manufacturing operations to service and other types of organizational work, including technical communication. By consulting scholarship from fields such as business, management, and engineering, and analyzing government Lean Six Sigma documentation, I investigate how these systems influence technical communication knowledge and practice in the workplace. I draw out the consequences of system-generated power structures as they affect knowledge work, like technical communication practice, when it is reduced to process. In pointing out the problems these systems have in managing knowledge work, I also ask how technical communication might shape them.

Gesti��n del territorio y proceso de construcci��n de la ciudad : reacciones y posicionamientos ante la redefinici��n de la normativa urban��stica para las ��reas centrales de Rosario

El art��culo se refiere a la propuesta de la Secretar��a de Planeamiento de la Municipalidad de Rosario para el reordenamiento urban��stico del ��rea central y primer anillo perimetral expuesta p��blicamente en marzo 2007 y al proceso de discusi��n previo a su elevaci��n al Concejo Municipal para su tratamiento en la ciudad de Rosario. Se trata de dar cuenta acerca de las dificultades encontradas ���y los intereses manifestados��� para arribar a una propuesta consensuada acerca de la transformaci��n y futuro de la ciudad y del valor otorgado a su patrimonio construido. En el trabajo a presentar se abordar�� las siguientes cuestiones: situaci��n en el momento en que se formula la propuesta, la propuesta de reordenamiento urban��stico, los mecanismos de discusi��n, la reacci��n de los actores, la oposici��n del mercado inmobiliario (C��mara Argentina de la Construcci��n, Asociaci��n de empresarios de la Vivienda, C��mara Inmobiliaria, Colegio de Arquitectos), la opini��n y participaci��n de los concejales y del mundo acad��mico, las propuestas de los vecinos y la opini��n del comit�� de expertos convocados para la audiencia p��blica. El trabajo se basa fundamentalmente en el an��lisis del discurso de los distintos actores en base notas oficiales, comunicados de prensa, apuntes de reuniones, informaci��n period��stica, presentaciones escritas ante la audiencia p��blica, documentos de expertos. Para la interpretaci��n de la din��mica del proceso de construcci��n de tiene en cuenta la documentaci��n municipal respecto de la din��mica de la construcci��n en la ciudad en los ��ltimos a��os, la opini��n de economistas especializados en el tema y la opini��n de agentes inmobiliarios.

Sustainable Planning And Land Valuation, New Forms Of Suburban Growth In Areas Of The Spanish Mediterranean Coast

The present study analyzes residential models in coastal areas with large influxes of tourism, the sustainability of their planning and its repercussion on urban values. The project seeks to establish a methodology for territorial valuation through the analysis of externalities that have influenced urban growth and its impact on the formation of residential real estate values. This will make it possible to create a map for qualitative land valuation, resulting from a combination of environmental, landscape, social and productive valuations. This in turn will establish a reference value for each of the areas in question, as well as their spatial interrelations. These values become guidelines for the study of different territorial scenarios, which help improve the sustainable territorial planning process. This is a rating scale for urban planning. The results allow us to establish how the specific characteristics of the coast are valued and how they can be incorporated into sustainable development policies.

Los agentes de la edificaci��n desde el punto de vista de la Gesti��n Integral de Proyectos: diferencias y semejanzas entre la Legislaci��n Espa��ola y los Est��ndares Internacionales = Expert agents in the Global Development of a building project: differences and similarities between Spanish and International contexts.

Desde los a��os 60, crece en Europa y Estados Unidos la preocupaci��n y la necesidad de mejorar los procesos de gerencia de los proyectos de construcci��n al volverse estos m��s complejos. Esto ha llevado a la continua aparici��n de nuevos profesionales desde la fecha citada hasta nuestros d��as. De ah�� la complejidad de conocer las cualidades de cada uno de ellos, as�� como las funciones a realizar o la formaci��n que deben tener para poder desarrollar el puesto de trabajo seg��n el papel que desempe��an para cada actividad. Muchos agentes son los que pueden intervenir en la edificaci��n, muchas son las funciones que llevan a cabo estos agentes, muchas son las habilidades que se necesitan para realizar estas misiones, y una buena gesti��n de la edificaci��n es la que hay que desarrollar para lograr el gran ��xito. El presente trabajo fin de m��ster, dirigido a arquitectos, arquitectos t��cnicos, ingenieros, abogados, economistas y todos los profesionales del sector inmobiliario y de la construcci��n, trata de resolver todas aquellas dudas sobre los diferentes sujetos que estar��n presentes desde la definici��n del proyecto en la fase inicial hasta el final de la obra, pasando por las fases de pre-construcci��n, construcci��n y post-construcci��n. (ENGLISH VERSION) Since the 1960s, most construction projects have become more and more complex, and new concerns and necessities related to the management of a project have been on the rise in Europe and in the United States. Thence, the need for more specialized professionals in the field has become a common fact, as well as the inclusion of new curricular subjects in most building engineering studies. There are different agents that play a relevant role in a building project; some of them are expected to perform a highly specialized set of functions that require specific management skills for the work to be successful. This research work���aimed mainly at engineers, quantity surveyors, lawyers, economists, real estate and construction professionals���shows the major implications of the building construction process including both pre-tender/construction and post-tender/construction stages as far as the main expert agents are involved.

La financiaci��n y la inversi��n inmobiliaria : repercusiones en el urbanismo y la arquitectura

El presente trabajo de tesis doctoral tiene por finalidad demostrar que las decisiones de financiaci��n y de inversi��n inmobiliaria en Espa��a influyen de manera determinante en la configuraci��n del proceso urban��stico y arquitect��nico. Este planteamiento inicial obliga a formular las siguientes cuestiones: - En una primera fase, la situaci��n en Espa��a del sector inmobiliario y su relaci��n con el sector financiero en el contexto de la actual crisis financiera, iniciada en el a��o 2008. - Los m��todos de an��lisis y selecci��n de inversiones y su aplicaci��n a los proyectos de inversi��n en funci��n de la naturaleza de los activos inmobiliarios. - La valoraci��n inmobiliaria para determinadas entidades financieras. - Caracter��sticas de la gesti��n financiera empresarial y de las empresas inmobiliarias. - El origen de fondos para financiar el proceso urban��stico y arquitect��nico mediante las instituciones de inversi��n colectiva inmobiliaria y el mercado inmobiliario. - La regulaci��n actual en Espa��a, a nivel estatal, del suelo como materia prima del sector inmobiliario. - La edificaci��n residencial y el mercado inmobiliario en el actual contexto econ��mico. - La posibilidad de crear en Espa��a un mercado de derivados basado en activos inmobiliarios. - C��mo repercute la actividad econ��mica, a trav��s de la inversi��n y la financiaci��n, en los activos inmobiliarios, en el urbanismo y la arquitectura. Las cuestiones precedentes se resuelven de forma sistem��tica y metodol��gica en esta tesis doctoral estructurada en tres grandes bloques (inversi��n, financiaci��n y repercusiones en el urbanismo y la arquitectura), obteniendo una serie de respuestas reflejadas en el desarrollo del presente trabajo que se sintetizan en las siguientes l��neas: - La actual crisis financiera iniciada en el a��o 2008 ha provocado en Espa��a el colapso del sector inmobiliario y una nueva concepci��n en la naturaleza de los activos inmobiliarios. El sector inmobiliario trae causa del sector financiero, en especial del cr��dito bancario. - Dependencia y vinculaci��n del sector inmobiliario espa��ol de la pol��tica monetaria europea: la incorporaci��n de Espa��a a la moneda ��nica transforma por completo el sector inmobiliario espa��ol. - Los m��todos de an��lisis y selecci��n de inversiones se conforman como instrumentos relevantes que nos permiten jerarquizar nuestros proyectos. No obstante, presentan una serie de limitaciones y dificultades de aplicaci��n pr��ctica, por lo que no deben considerarse como herramientas que nos aporten una ��nica soluci��n irrefutable. - La valoraci��n de activos inmobiliarios se constituye en un pilar b��sico que fundamenta la correcta aplicaci��n de los fondos. - La inversi��n en activos inmobiliarios puede realizarse de forma directa o indirecta. En este ��ltimo supuesto, con una influencia relevante de las innovaciones financieras surgidas en los ��ltimos a��os. - Las instituciones de inversi��n colectiva y el mercado hipotecario constituyen instituciones fundamentales capaces de captar importantes cantidades de fondos que impulsan y financian el proceso urban��stico y arquitect��nico. - El complejo y cambiante sistema jur��dico espa��ol en materia de suelo, dificulta la implementaci��n de los procesos urban��sticos y arquitect��nicos. - Tras la crisis financiera de 2008, los activos inmobiliarios tienen un comportamiento similar a otros activos en cuanto a subidas y bajadas de precios. En el actual sistema econ��mico, la especulaci��n forma parte inherente a la naturaleza de los activos inmobiliarios. - Desde una perspectiva te��rica, existe la posibilidad de crear un mercado de derivados que tenga como subyacente activos de naturaleza inmobiliaria. - Sin actividad econ��mica, el proceso urban��stico y arquitect��nico carecer�� finalmente de sentido y tender�� a desaparecer. No obstante, son las innovaciones tecnol��gicas, a nivel de producto y proceso, las principales causantes del impulso de la actividad econ��mica. - A pesar de lo expresado en los documentos urban��sticos internacionales, la transformaci��n del urbanismo y la arquitectura dependen principalmente de la actividad econ��mica y la tecnolog��a. En un segundo nivel, la inversi��n y la financiaci��n condicionan y definen el urbanismo y la arquitectura, incluso a nivel de proyecto si se pretende su materializaci��n. En base al desarrollo previo, el objetivo fundamental de esta tesis doctoral ha sido demostrar que las decisiones de financiaci��n y de inversi��n tienen una importancia capital y determinan la configuraci��n de los activos inmobiliario, del urbanismo y la arquitectura, por lo que deben ser tenidas en cuenta no s��lo en su materializaci��n sino incluso en la propia concepci��n del proceso creativo. ABSTRACT The present dissertation aims to show that real estate financing and investment decisions in Spain play a predominant role in structuring urban development and architectural solutions. The issues addressed to support that contention include: - As a preliminary study, the situation of the real estate industry in Spain and its relationship to the financial sector in the context of the 2008 financial crisis. - The methods used to analyse and select investments and their application to investment projects, by type of real estate asset. - Appraisal of certain financial institutions��� real estate asset holdings. - Characteristics of financial institution and real estate company corporate management. - Sourcing funds for financing urban development and architecture through real estate investment trusts and the real estate market. - Present nation-wide regulations on landed property in Spain as a raw material for the real estate industry. - Residential building construction and the real estate market in the present economic context. - The possibility of creating a real estate asset-based derivatives market in Spain - The impact of economic activity, through investment and financing, on real estate assets, urban development and architecture. The aforementioned issues are addressed systematically and methodically in this dissertation, which is divided into three major units: investment, financing, and impact on urban development and architecture. The conclusions drawn are summarised below. - The financial crisis that began in 2008 has induced the collapse of the Spanish real estate industry and spawned a new perception of the nature of real estate assets. The real estate industry is dependent upon the financial sector, in particular on bank loans. - The Spanish real estate industry also depends on and is related to European monetary policy: Spain���s adherence to the single currency ushered in a thorough overhaul of its real estate industry. - Investment analysis and selection methods constitute highly suitable tools for project evaluation and ranking. Nonetheless, inasmuch as their practical implementation is subject to a series of limitations and difficulties, they should not be thought able to deliver a single irrefutable solution. - Real estate asset appraisal is a mainstay to the rightful application of funds. - Real estate asset investments can be made directly or indirectly. The latter approach is heavily influenced by the financial innovations forthcoming in recent years. - Investment trusts and the mortgage market are key institutions able to raise substantial funding, thereby driving and financing urban development and architecture. - Spain���s complex and changing legal provisions on land management are an obstacle to urban development and architecture. - Since the 2008 crisis, real estate assets have behaved much like other assets in terms of rising and falling prices. In the present economic context, speculation is indivisible from real estate assets. - Theoretically speaking, a derivatives market with real estate holdings as the underlying assets lies within the realm of possibility. - In the absence of economic activity, urban development and architecture are senseless pursuits and tend to disappear. Technological innovation in products and processes are the main drivers of economic activity. - Despite the opinion expressed in international papers on the subject, the transformation of urban development and architecture depend primarily on economic activity and technology. In a second dimension, investment and financing condition and define urban development and architecture, even at the design level for projects aspiring to actual construction. Pursuant to the foregoing, the primary aim of this dissertation is to show that financial and investment decisions are of cardinal importance and determine the structure of real estate assets, urban development and architecture. They must consequently be borne in mind not only in connection with implementation, but also with conceptual design and the creative process itself. I

Knowledge-based models for adaptive traffic management systems

This paper describes a general approach for real time traffic management support using knowledge based models. Recognizing that human intervention is usually required to apply the current automatic traffic control systems, it is argued that there is a need for an additional intelligent layer to help operators to understand traffic problems and to make the best choice of strategic control actions that modify the assumption framework of the existing systems.

Desarrollo de un modelo de predimensionado de costes de construcci��n en el proyecto arquitect��nico

El objetivo de la presente investigaci��n es el desarrollo de un modelo de c��lculo r��pido, eficiente y preciso, para la estimaci��n de los costes finales de construcci��n, en las fases preliminares del proyecto arquitect��nico. Se trata de una herramienta a utilizar durante el proceso de elaboraci��n de estudios previos, anteproyecto y proyecto b��sico, no siendo por tanto preciso para calcular el ���predimensionado de costes��� disponer de la total definici��n grafica y literal del proyecto. Se parte de la hip��tesis de que en la aplicaci��n pr��ctica del modelo no se producir��n desviaciones superiores al 10 % sobre el coste final de la obra proyectada. Para ello se formulan en el modelo de predimensionado cinco niveles de estimaci��n de costes, de menor a mayor definici��n conceptual y gr��fica del proyecto arquitect��nico. Los cinco niveles de c��lculo son: dos que toman como referencia los valores ���ex��genos��� de venta de las viviendas (promoci��n inicial y promoci��n b��sica) y tres basados en c��lculos de costes ���end��genos��� de la obra proyectada (estudios previos, anteproyecto y proyecto b��sico). El primer nivel de estimaci��n de car��cter ���ex��geno��� (nivel .1), se calcula en base a la valoraci��n de mercado de la promoci��n inmobiliaria y a su porcentaje de repercusi��n de suelo sobre el valor de venta de las viviendas. El quinto nivel de valoraci��n, tambi��n de car��cter ���ex��geno��� (nivel .5), se calcula a partir del contraste entre el valor externo b��sico de mercado, los costes de construcci��n y los gastos de promoci��n estimados de la obra proyectada. Este contraste entre la ���repercusi��n del coste de construcci��n��� y el valor de mercado, supone una innovaci��n respecto a los modelos de predimensionado de costes existentes, como proceso metodol��gico de verificaci��n y validaci��n extr��nseca, de la precisi��n y validez de las estimaciones resultantes de la aplicaci��n pr��ctica del modelo, que se denomina Pcr.5n (Predimensionado costes de referencia con .5niveles de c��lculo seg��n fase de definici��n proyectual / ideaci��n arquitect��nica). Los otros tres niveles de predimensionado de costes de construcci��n ���end��genos���, se estiman mediante c��lculos anal��ticos internos por unidades de obra y c��lculos sint��ticos por sistemas constructivos y espacios funcionales, lo que se lleva a cabo en las etapas iniciales del proyecto correspondientes a estudios previos (nivel .2), anteproyecto (nivel .3) y proyecto b��sico (nivel .4). Estos c��lculos te��ricos internos son finalmente evaluados y validados mediante la aplicaci��n pr��ctica del modelo en obras de edificaci��n residencial, de las que se conocen sus costes reales de liquidaci��n final de obra. Seg��n va evolucionando y se incrementa el nivel de definici��n y desarrollo del proyecto, desde los estudios previos hasta el proyecto b��sico, el c��lculo se va perfeccionando en su nivel de eficiencia y precisi��n de la estimaci��n, seg��n la metodolog��a aplicada: [aproximaciones sucesivas en intervalos finitos], siendo la hip��tesis b��sica como anteriormente se ha avanzado, lograr una desviaci��n m��xima de una d��cima parte en el c��lculo estimativo del predimensionado del coste real de obra. El c��lculo del coste de ejecuci��n material de la obra, se desarrolla en base a par��metros c��bicos funcionales ���tridimensionales��� del espacio proyectado y par��metros m��tricos constructivos ���bidimensionales��� de la envolvente exterior de cubierta/fachada y de la huella del edificio sobre el terreno. Los costes funcionales y constructivos se ponderan en cada fase del proceso de c��lculo con sus par��metros ���tem��ticos/espec��ficos��� de gesti��n (Pg), proyecto (Pp) y ejecuci��n (Pe) de la concreta obra presupuestada, para finalmente estimar el coste de construcci��n por contrata, como resultado de incrementar al coste de ejecuci��n material el porcentaje correspondiente al par��metro tem��tico/especifico de la obra proyectada. El modelo de predimensionado de costes de construcci��n Pcr.5n, ser�� una herramienta de gran inter��s y utilidad en el ��mbito profesional, para la estimaci��n del coste correspondiente al Proyecto B��sico previsto en el marco t��cnico y legal de aplicaci��n. Seg��n el Anejo I del C��digo T��cnico de la Edificaci��n (CTE), es de obligado cumplimiento que el proyecto b��sico contenga una ���Valoraci��n aproximada de la ejecuci��n material de la obra proyectada por cap��tulos���, es decir , que el Proyecto B��sico ha de contener al menos un ���presupuesto aproximado���, por cap��tulos, oficios �� tecnolog��as. El referido c��lculo aproximado del presupuesto en el Proyecto B��sico, necesariamente se ha de realizar mediante la t��cnica del predimensionado de costes, dado que en esta fase del proyecto arquitect��nico a��n no se dispone de c��lculos de estructura, planos de acondicionamiento e instalaciones, ni de la resoluci��n constructiva de la envolvente, por cuanto no se han desarrollado las especificaciones propias del posterior proyecto de ejecuci��n. Esta estimaci��n aproximada del coste de la obra, es sencilla de calcular mediante la aplicaci��n pr��ctica del modelo desarrollado, y ello tanto para estudiantes como para profesionales del sector de la construcci��n. Como se contiene y justifica en el presente trabajo, la aplicaci��n pr��ctica del modelo para el c��lculo de costes en las fases preliminares del proyecto, es r��pida y certera, siendo de sencilla aplicaci��n tanto en vivienda unifamiliar (aisladas y pareadas), como en viviendas colectivas (bloques y manzanas). Tambi��n, el modelo es de aplicaci��n en el ��mbito de la valoraci��n inmobiliaria, tasaciones, an��lisis de viabilidad econ��mica de promociones inmobiliarias, estimaci��n de costes de obras terminadas y en general, cuando no se dispone del proyecto de ejecuci��n y sea preciso calcular los costes de construcci��n de las obras proyectadas. Adem��s, el modelo puede ser de aplicaci��n para el chequeo de presupuestos calculados por el m��todo anal��tico tradicional (estado de mediciones pormenorizadas por sus precios unitarios y costes descompuestos), tanto en obras de iniciativa privada como en obras promovidas por las Administraciones P��blicas. Por ��ltimo, como l��neas abiertas a futuras investigaciones, el modelo de ���predimensionado costes de referencia 5 niveles de c��lculo���, se podr��a adaptar y aplicar para otros usos y tipolog��as diferentes a la residencial, como edificios de equipamientos y dotaciones p��blicas, valoraci��n de edificios hist��ricos, obras de urbanizaci��n interior y exterior de parcela, proyectos de parques y jardines, etc���.. Estas lineas de investigaci��n suponen trabajos paralelos al aqu�� desarrollado, y que a modo de avance parcial se recogen en las comunicaciones presentadas en los Congresos internacionales Scieconf/Junio 2013, Rics���Cobra/Septiembre 2013 y en el IV Congreso nacional de patolog��a en la edificaci��n���Ucam/Abril 2014. ABSTRACT The aim of this research is to develop a fast, efficient and accurate calculation model to estimate the final costs of construction, during the preliminary stages of the architectural project. It is a tool to be used during the preliminary study process, drafting and basic project. It is not therefore necessary to have the exact, graphic definition of the project in order to be able to calculate the cost���scaling. It is assumed that no deviation 10% higher than the final cost of the projected work will occur during the implementation. To that purpose five levels of cost estimation are formulated in the scaling model, from a lower to a higher conceptual and graphic definition of the architectural project. The five calculation levels are: two that take as point of reference the ���exogenous��� values of house sales (initial development and basic development), and three based on calculation of endogenous costs (preliminary study, drafting and basic project). The first ���exogenous��� estimation level (level.1) is calculated over the market valuation of real estate development and the proportion the cost of land has over the value of the houses. The fifth level of valuation, also an ���exogenous��� one (level.5) is calculated from the contrast between the basic external market value, the construction costs, and the estimated development costs of the projected work. This contrast between the ���repercussions of construction costs��� and the market value is an innovation regarding the existing cost���scaling models, as a methodological process of extrinsic verification and validation, of the accuracy and validity of the estimations obtained from the implementation of the model, which is called Pcr.5n (reference cost���scaling with .5calculation levels according to the stage of project definition/ architectural conceptualization) The other three levels of ���endogenous��� construction cost���scaling are estimated from internal analytical calculations by project units and synthetic calculations by construction systems and functional spaces. This is performed during the initial stages of the project corresponding to preliminary study process (level.2), drafting (level.3) and basic project (level.4). These theoretical internal calculations are finally evaluated and validated via implementation of the model in residential buildings, whose real costs on final payment of the works are known. As the level of definition and development of the project evolves, from preliminary study to basic project, the calculation improves in its level of efficiency and estimation accuracy, following the applied methodology: [successive approximations at finite intervals]. The basic hypothesis as above has been made, achieving a maximum deviation of one tenth, in the estimated calculation of the true cost of predimensioning work. The cost calculation for material execution of the works is developed from functional ���three���dimensional��� cubic parameters for the planned space and constructive ���two dimensional��� metric parameters for the surface that envelopes around the facade and the building���s footprint on the plot. The functional and building costs are analyzed at every stage of the process of calculation with ���thematic/specific��� parameters of management (Pg), project (Pp) and execution (Pe) of the estimated work in question, and finally the cost of contractual construction is estimated, as a consequence of increasing the cost of material execution with the percentage pertaining to the thematic/specific parameter of the projected work. The construction cost���scaling Pcr.5n model will be a useful tool of great interest in the professional field to estimate the cost of the Basic Project as prescribed in the technical and legal framework of application. According to the appendix of the Technical Building Code (CTE), it is compulsory that the basic project contains an ���approximate valuation of the material execution of the work, projected by chapters���, that is, that the basic project must contain at least an ���approximate estimate��� by chapter, trade or technology. This approximate estimate in the Basic Project is to be performed through the cost���scaling technique, given that structural calculations, reconditioning plans and definitive contruction details of the envelope are still not available at this stage of the architectural project, insofar as specifications pertaining to the later project have not yet been developed. This approximate estimate of the cost of the works is easy to calculate through the implementation of the given model, both for students and professionals of the building sector. As explained and justified in this work, the implementation of the model for cost���scaling during the preliminary stage is fast and accurate, as well as easy to apply both in single���family houses (detached and semi���detached) and collective housing (blocks). The model can also be applied in the field of the real���estate valuation, official appraisal, analysis of the economic viability of real estate developments, estimate of the cost of finished projects and, generally, when an implementation project is not available and it is necessary to calculate the building costs of the projected works. The model can also be applied to check estimates calculated by the traditional analytical method (state of measurements broken down into price per unit cost details), both in private works and those promoted by Public Authorities. Finally, as potential lines for future research, the ���five levels of calculation cost���scaling model���, could be adapted and applied to purposes and typologies other than the residential one, such as service buildings and public facilities, valuation of historical buildings, interior and exterior development works, park and garden planning, etc��� These lines of investigation are parallel to this one and, by way of a preview, can be found in the dissertations given in the International Congresses Scieconf/June 2013, Rics���Cobra/September 2013 and in the IV Congress on building pathology ���Ucam/April 2014.

Dise��o metodol��gico para la creaci��n y desarrollo de organizaciones innovadoras, basadas en un modelo de liderazgo que genere entornos facilitadores de la creatividad, implantaci��n de procesos de innovaci��n y creaci��n de productos y servicios innovadores

La presente investigaci��n tiene como objetivo el desarrollo de una metodolog��a que favorezca la innovaci��n en las empresas a trav��s de la actividad directiva, analizando a su vez, su influencia a nivel macro, en los sistemas de innovaci��n, en las pol��ticas de innovaci��n y en el capital intelectual y a nivel micro, en la innovaci��n, en el desempe��o y en el clima organizacional. Se estima importante realizar un estudio sobre este tema debido a que la innovaci��n se considera un pilar cr��tico para el desarrollo social a trav��s de la competitividad de las empresas, as�� como, una fuente importante de ventaja competitiva. Existe abundante literatura sobre la influencia de la innovaci��n en la gesti��n empresarial y el papel que el liderazgo desempe��a en t��rminos generales. Sin embargo, la literatura presenta diversos estilos de liderazgo sin mostrar una l��nea consistente de interrelaci��n entre ellos, por lo que finalmente no existe una relaci��n s��lida entre el liderazgo, la gesti��n empresarial y la innovaci��n. Este hecho se debe, como se muestra en la tesis, a que la literatura analiza las organizaciones y el liderazgo desde una perspectiva sociol��gica u organizacional, y otra desde la perspectiva psicol��gica sin aportar una l��nea de articulaci��n entre ambas. Es decir, la literatura analiza el comportamiento organizacional pero no su causa. A lo largo de la tesis se van desarrollando diferentes l��neas de trabajo que se convierten en aportaciones emp��ricas y acad��micas. As��, una de las aportaciones de la tesis es la sustituci��n de la figura del l��der como persona, por la de un directivo con una doble funci��n; por un lado, la funci��n de liderazgo cuyo objetivo es generar cambio y por el otro, la funci��n de gestionar el d��a a d��a o desempe��o. Sustituir la figura del l��der por una doble funcionalidad directiva facilita la comprensi��n del concepto liderazgo, lo que permite a su vez, establecer estrategias para su desarrollo, haciendo una realidad el que el liderazgo puede ser aprendido. Este resultado constituye la primera aportaci��n de la tesis. As�� mismo, a trav��s de un exhaustivo an��lisis de la literatura, se desarrolla una propuesta de liderazgo integrado de acuerdo con el modelo Stuart-Kotze, el cual se describe tambi��n ampliamente. Encontrar un modelo ��nico de liderazgo supone la piedra angular para el desarrollo de la metodolog��a. Esta propuesta de liderazgo integrado da lugar a la segunda aportaci��n de la tesis. Del mismo modo, se realiza un estudio en profundidad de la perspectiva psicol��gica de las organizaciones desarrollando el constructo Miedo al Error (ME) que resulta ser un rasgo de la personalidad existente en todos los seres humanos y que presenta una influencia negativa tanto en el desempe��o, como en la innovaci��n empresarial. Este resultado permite identificar cuales son las verdaderas barreras para el ejercicio del liderazgo, se��alando que la disminuci��n del ME debe ser considerada como una competencia de la Inteligencia Emocional a ser desarrollada por los directivos. Este resultado constituye la tercera aportaci��n de la tesis. Una vez desarrollado el modelo de gesti��n empresarial expuesto, se procede a su validaci��n, analizando la relaci��n entre los constructos que definen el modelo de gesti��n: el desempe��o, la innovaci��n y el ME. Para identificar las influencias o relaciones de causalidad que subyacen entre los constructos, se utiliz�� la t��cnica del modelo de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM). La poblaci��n objeto de estudio estuvo constituida por 350 profesionales con responsabilidad directiva, procedentes de empresas del sector servicios repartidas por toda la geograf��a espa��ola. Como fuente primaria de recolecci��n de informaci��n se utiliz�� el cuestionario desarrollado por Stuart-Kotze M-CPI (Momentum Continuous Performance Improvement). En primer lugar se procedi�� a evaluar las propiedades psicom��tricas del modelo de medida, llev��ndose a cabo un an��lisis factorial exploratorio (AFE) y un an��lisis factorial confirmatorio (AFC) de segundo orden. Los resultados obtenidos ponen de manifiesto que el constructo desempe��o (D) viene determinado por dos dimensiones, (DOP), desempe��o orientado hacia la planificaci��n y (DORT), desempe��o orientado hacia la realizaci��n de la tarea. Es decir, la muestra de directivos no percibe que la planificaci��n en el d��a a d��a y la realizaci��n de la tarea est��n articuladas. Posteriormente se procede a realizar el contraste del modelo a trav��s del m��todo de ecuaciones estructurales. Los resultados muestran que la relaci��n de influencia de la dimensi��n DOP no es significativa, por lo que el constructo D queda representado ��nicamente por la dimensi��n DORT. Los resultados de la investigaci��n proporcionan conclusiones e hip��tesis para futuras investigaciones. Si bien la muestra de directivos realiza un plan estrat��gico, ��ste no se tiene en cuenta en el d��a a d��a. Este hecho podr��a explicar el alto grado de administraci��n por crisis tan frecuente en la empresa espa��ola. A su vez, el ME presenta una influencia negativa en la innovaci��n, lo que concuerda con la literatura. Al respecto, considerar el ME como un rasgo de la personalidad, presente tanto en directivos como en colaboradores, facilita la comprensi��n de las barreras de la organizaci��n hacia la comunicaci��n abierta a la vez, que una direcci��n de trabajo para la mejora de la capacidad innovadora de la organizaci��n. Por ��ltimo, los resultados establecen la existencia de una relaci��n causal entre el desempe��o diario y la innovaci��n. Con respecto a este segundo resultado y analizando los comportamientos que identifican el constructo D surgen tambi��n varias conclusiones e hip��tesis para futuras investigaciones. Los resultados ponen de manifiesto que la muestra de directivos genera iniciativas de cambio con la finalidad de que el trabajo diario salga adelante seg��n los est��ndares de calidad definidos. Sin embargo, estas iniciativas s��lo proceden de los directivos, sin participaci��n alguna de los colaboradores, los cuales son s��lo responsables de la implementaci��n produci��ndose la consiguiente desmotivaci��n y p��rdida de oportunidades. Esta conclusi��n pone de manifiesto que la innovaci��n de las empresas de la muestra sucede para garantizar la eficiencia de los procesos existentes, pero en ning��n caso surge de la iniciativa de buscar una mejor eficacia empresarial. Este hecho plantea un origen doble de la innovaci��n en los procesos. La innovaci��n proactiva que buscar��a la mejora de la eficacia de la organizaci��n y una innovaci��n de car��cter reactiva que buscar��a la salvaguarda de la eficiencia. Quiz��s sea esta la causa del gap existente entre la innovaci��n en Espa��a y la innovaci��n de los pa��ses que ocupan los primeros puestos en el ranking de producci��n de innovaci��n lo que constituye un importante punto de partida para una investigaci��n futura. ABSTRACT This research aims to develop a methodology that supports innovation in companies through the managers��� activity, analysing in turn its influence at the macro level: innovation systems, innovation policies and Intellectual capital and at the micro level: innovation itself, performance and organizational climate. It is considered important to conduct a study on this subject due to the fact that innovation is considered a critical pillar for the development and future of the enterprise and an important source of competitive advantage. There is abundant literature about the influence of innovation in business management and the role that leadership plays in general terms. However, the literature presents various styles of leadership without showing a consistent relationship among them, so finally there is not a strong relationship among leadership, business management and innovation. As shown in the thesis, this is due to the fact that the literature analyses organizations and leadership from a sociological or organizational perspective and from a psychological perspective, without providing a hinge line between the two. That is, the existing literature discusses organizational behaviour but not its cause. Throughout the thesis, different lines of work that become empirical and academic contributions have been developed. Thus, one of the contributions of the thesis is replacing the figure of the leader as a person, by a manager with a dual function. Firstly, we have the leadership role which aims to generate change and, on the other hand, the function to manage the day-to-day task or performance. Replacing the figure of the leader by a dual managerial functionality facilitates the understanding of the leadership concept, allowing in turn, to establish development strategies and making true that leadership can be learned. This outcome is the first contribution of the thesis. Likewise, through a comprehensive literature review, an integrated leadership proposal is developed, according to the Kotze model, which is also described widely. Finding a specific leadership model represents the cornerstone for the development of the methodology. This integrated leadership proposal leads to the second contribution of the thesis. Similarly, an in-depth study was conducted about the psychological perspective of the organizations disclosing the construct Fear of Failure. This construct is a personality trait that exists in all human beings and has a negative influence on both performance and business innovation. This outcome allows identifying which are the real barriers to the exercise of leadership, noting that the decrease in fear of failure must be considered as an Emotional Intelligence competence to be developed by managers. This outcome represents the third contribution of the thesis. Once a business management model has been developed, we proceed to its validation by analysing the relationship among the model constructs: management, innovation and fear of failure. To identify the influence or causal relationships underlying the constructs, a structural equation model (SEM) technique was used. The study population consisted of 350 professionals with managerial responsibility, from companies in the services sector scattered throughout the Spanish geography. As a primary source for gathering information a questionnaire developed by Kotze M-CPI (Continuous Performance Improvement Momentum) was used. First we proceeded to evaluate the psychometric properties of the measurement model, carrying out an exploratory factorial analysis (EFA) and a confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA) of second order. The results show that the performance construct D is determined by two-dimensions (DOP: performance oriented to planning) and (DORT: aiming at the realization of the task). That is, the sample of managers does not perceive that planning and the daily task are articulated. Then, we proceeded to make the contrast of the model through a structural equation model SEM. The results show that the influence of the DOP dimension is not significant, so that only the DORT dimension finally represents the construct D. The research outcomes provide conclusions and hypotheses for future research. Although the managers in the sample develop a strategic plan, it seems that managers do not take it into account in their daily tasks. This could explain the high degree of crisis management so prevalent in the Spanish companies. In turn, the fear of failure has a negative influence on innovation, consistent with the literature. In this regard, the fear of failure is considered as a personality trait, present in both managers and employees, which enables the understanding of organizational barriers to open communication and provides a direction to improve the organization���s innovative capacity as well. Finally, the results establish a causal relationship between daily performance and innovation. Regarding this second outcome and analysing the behaviours that identify the construct D, several conclusions and hypotheses for future research arise as well. The results show that the managers in the sample show initiatives of change in order to make everyday work go ahead, according to defined quality standards. However, these initiatives only come from managers without any participation of coworkers, which are only responsible for the implementation, and this produces discouragement and loss of opportunities. This finding shows that the innovation by the companies in the sample happens to guarantee the efficiency of existing processes, but do not arise from an initiative that seeks better business efficacy. This raises two sources of innovation in processes. The first source would be a proactive innovation that would seek improved organizational efficacy. The second one is a reactive innovation that would seek to safeguard efficiency. Perhaps this is the cause of the existing gap between the innovation activity in Spain and the innovation activity in those countries that occupy the top positions in the ranking of innovation outcomes. The Spanish companies seek process efficiency and the top innovators business efficacy. This is an important starting point for future research.

Desigualdad social en la "Ciudad Negocio": El modelo inmobiliario en la construcci��n social de Madrid durante el desarrollismo

El objetivo de esta Tesis doctoral es arrojar m��s luz sobre los mecanismos a partir de los cuales se dibuja el mapa de la desigualdad social en los sistemas urbanos contempor��neos. Para ello, en primer lugar se ha realizado una revisi��n cr��tica de los diferentes planteamientos desde los que se abordan los procesos de formaci��n del espacio social urbano. A partir de ah�� se ha aplicado el campo te��rico analizado a un caso concreto muy representativo, el espacio social del Madrid de finales del siglo XX, comprob��ndose c��mo los planteamientos tradicionales muestran carencias en cuanto a la explicaci��n de los procesos estudiados. Por otro lado, una vez constatado que el espacio social madrile��o producto del r��gimen de acumulaci��n fordista destaca por un dibujo especialmente clasificado y jerarquizado, se ha analizado cuando y por qu�� comenz�� este fen��meno de tan radical "clasificaci��n social". Como resultado se obtiene que s��lo es posible generar un discurso de explicaci��n del espacio social estudiado considerando, por un lado, la percepci��n de la ciudad preexistente y, por otro, la concepci��n y construcci��n de la ���planeada��� por un modelo inmobiliario obligado a reconstruir en su mapa de precios una estructura social reci��n transformada. Una vez comprobado que la transformaci��n que sufrieron tanto la estructura social como el modelo inmobiliario supuso un cambio de fase en la evoluci��n de la ciudad y su espacio social se ha formulado un nuevo modelo urbano que se ha denominado ���Ciudad Negocio��� . En esta Ciudad Negocio destaca un modelo inmobiliario de venta de viviendas financiadas que, debido a sus propios mecanismos de funcionamiento, requiere de un espacio social muy ordenado, jerarquizado y estable que reproduzca la estructura social existente de forma visible. ABSTRACT The aim of this research project is to shed more light on the variables that draw the social inequality maps in the contemporary urban systems. For that purpose, a thoughtful review of the different theories around urban and social planning has taken place. The outcome of the analysis has been projected over a very representative sample, the social space in Madrid at the end of the 20th Century, proving the fact that traditional arguments do not explain the way the contemporary social patterns has been developed. On the other hand, once verified the fact that the social space in Madrid conceptually inherited from the Regulation School outlines a social hierarchy pattern, an analysis of the reasons that lead to such ���social classification��� has been performed. The research conclusions around the reviewed urban space can only be sustained by the perception of a pre-existing city and the boundaries of a real state pattern forced to match the prices to the newly transformed social structure. The transformation of the social structure and the real state model and its impact over the urban space has lead to a new urban model called ���Business City���. This new urban product is built over a residential real estate market, which in nature requires of a very organised, socially classified and stabled pattern so that it mirrors the existing social structure.

Din��micas de ocupaci��n urbana del Anillo Verde metropolitano, desde sus or��genes en el Plan General del ��rea Metropolitana de Madrid de 1963 hasta el Plan General de Ordenaci��n Urbana de 1997

El Anillo Verde metropolitano, definido por el Plan General de Ordenaci��n Urbana del ��rea Metropolitana de Madrid en 1963 siguiendo los modelos planteados por la cultura urban��stica internacional, como armadura de la estructura urbana del AMM, espacio protagonista dentro del sistema de espacios libres, lugar de uso p��blico destinado al recreo y contacto con la naturaleza de la poblaci��n madrile��a, se convierte en realidad en una reserva de suelo que va entrando en juego motivado por las alianzas entre el poder institucional y la clase social dominante actuando al margen del planeamiento, poniendo en evidencia la escasez de recursos legales y culturales disponibles para la salvaguarda de los intereses comunes y, donde los condicionantes geogr��ficos y naturales del territorio madrile��o han influido decisivamente en la especializaci��n funcional y espacial del ��rea Metropolitana de Madrid. As�� pues considerando esta idea como HIP��TESIS, el objetivo de la TESIS ser��a demostrarla, para lo cual se hace necesario primero, acotar espacial y temporalmente el objeto de estudio, es decir, del Anillo Verde metropolitano1, segundo, contextualizar hist��rica y disciplinarmente los presupuestos te��ricos que conformaban la idea del Anillo Verde, tercero, reconocer, localizar y documentar las piezas que han ido materializando la ocupaci��n urbana del Anillo Verde, clasific��ndolas seg��n par��metros temporales, funcionales, urban��sticos y, formales, lo que permite analizar la geograf��a, uso, instrumentaci��n y forma de su transformaci��n a escala general metropolitana y, cuarto, profundizar a modo de comprobaci��n a escala municipal y urbana en dos escenarios representativos del conjunto metropolitano: el municipio de Pozuelo de Alarc��n y el distrito de Hortaleza-Barajas. El contenido del documento se divide en tres bloques, el bloque I, se centra en las bases te��ricas, el bloque II sit��a el hilo argumental de la tesis a escala metropolitana y el bloque III comprueba el fen��meno a escala municipal y urbana. De esta forma, se comienza por la comprensi��n del significado del concepto del Anillo Verde, que va m��s all�� de la dimensi��n instrumental asignada de l��mite y contenci��n urbana frente al crecimiento de la ciudad industrial de principios del siglo XX, basada en la descentralizaci��n de la ciudad tradicional, para adquirir un significado m��s complejo, como gran espacio de reserva y salvaguarda de valores naturales y culturales que se expresaban en su territorio y que permitir��an alcanzar el equilibrio entre la ciudad y sus habitantes, es decir, entre el hombre y el espacio que habita. Se hace un recorrido por las principales corrientes urban��sticas que se van nutriendo de distintas disciplinas (econom��a, sociolog��a, geograf��a, biolog��a, ecolog��a) para plantear teor��as que permitieran materializar un nuevo orden urbano seg��n principios de equidad social, econ��mica y ambiental, en una secuencia donde Europa y Estados Unidos realizaban un constante intercambio -el movimiento de la Ciudad Jard��n o el Regionalismo, que dieron paso a propuestas como el Greater London o el Gran Berl��n, donde la figura del Anillo Verde ten��a un papel protagonista, y del que tambi��n participar��a nuestro pa��s y la ciudad de Madrid, con modelos regionales como el Plan Besteiro y urbanos como el Plan Bidagor, antecedentes directos del Plan General de Ordenaci��n Urbana del ��rea Metropolitana de Madrid de 1963 que pone en marcha la ordenaci��n del crecimiento metropolitano de Madrid. El hilo argumental de la tesis se organiza en una doble aproximaci��n: un acercamiento a escala metropolitana a partir del reconocimiento del modelo de ciudad definido en los distintos planes generales que acompa��aron el desarrollo metropolitano (municipio de Madrid y de los siete t��rminos municipales que rodeaban a este y que ten��an suelo destinado a Anillo Verde), haciendo referencia adem��s a las relaciones con el planeamiento regional, concretando en una escala de aproximaci��n municipal que avanza hasta la interpretaci��n urbana detallada. El primer acercamiento tiene lugar en el bloque II y se organiza en tres cap��tulos. El cap��tulo 4 se dedica al punto obligado de partida de la geograf��a local, describiendo las caracter��sticas biof��sicas de los terrenos que formaban parte del Anillo Verde, que han marcado hist��ricamente la forma de aprovechamiento del territorio, desde las extensiones de bosques mediterr��neos al norte y al oeste continuaci��n del Monte del Pardo, a los distintos tipos de cultivo que se adaptaban al sustrato geol��gico y la forma del terreno (de las suaves ondulaciones de sedimentos arc��sicos al norte a las extensas plataformas arenosas y yes��feras del sur), adem��s de las zonas de huertos aprovechando las depresiones y los cursos de agua (arroyo del Monte Carmelo, arroyo de Valdebebas, arroyo del Quinto, arroyo del Santo, arroyo Butarque, arroyo Meaques y arroyo Pozuelo). Una vez reconocida la realidad f��sica, el cap��tulo 5, avanza en la descripci��n de los distintos modelos de ciudad propuestos desde el planeamiento urban��stico, en sus distintas escalas, la regional y la municipal, como respuesta a la coyuntura social, econ��mica y pol��tica que ha caracterizado el proceso de ocupaci��n del Anillo Verde al comp��s de la construcci��n del AMM. Se han reunido las propuestas de planeamiento municipal de los distintos municipios que dispon��an de terreno calificado como Anillo Verde: Madrid, Coslada, Getafe, Legan��s, Alcorc��n, Boadilla del Monte y Pozuelo de Alarc��n. Adem��s se han incorporado las distintas propuestas de ordenaci��n territorial que han servido de referencia al planeamiento municipal, en todas sus versiones, desde las sectoriales, de mayor ��xito y apoyo institucional, a los distintos intentos de ordenaci��n integral, de mayor complejidad pero de menor calado, precisamente por la dificultad de consenso entre la ordenaci��n f��sica y el desarrollo econ��mico, entre los intereses privados y el beneficio p��blico. El primer horizonte, comienza con la formulaci��n del Plan General de Ordenaci��n Urbana del ��rea Metropolitana de Madrid de 1963, su desarrollo y la puesta en marcha de los primeros planes municipales en la d��cada de los a��os setenta, donde se comprueba la necesidad de un marco regional que ���ordene��� el territorio de forma integral y sirva de referencia a las actuaciones sectoriales que hab��an marcado el primer desarrollo metropolitano. El segundo, se sit��a dos d��cadas m��s tarde con la aprobaci��n del Plan General de Ordenaci��n Urbana de Madrid de 1985 y el conjunto de planes municipales de los t��rminos lim��trofes, que siguen su filosof��a de austeridad en cuanto a crecimiento territorial. El tercero se inicia en 1997 con la siguiente generaci��n de planes de corte neoliberal que imponen un modelo territorial basado en las grandes operaciones metropolitanas de centralidad, infraestructuras y equipamiento, que consumen de forma indiscriminada la totalidad del territorio madrile��o. Ser�� en el ��ltimo cap��tulo del segundo bloque (cap��tulo 6) donde se represente gr��ficamente a escala metropolitana y se analicen las 229 piezas que han ido colmatando el espacio destinado a Anillo Verde, seg��n los par��metros de estudio, en base a las cuales se plantean las primeras conclusiones generales de la tesis, poniendo de manifiesto que las alianzas entre los agentes soberanos en la construcci��n de la ciudad y su entorno han trasgredido sucesivamente las determinaciones del Planeamiento en su definici��n de modelo de ciudad y territorio, acusando la carencia de recursos instrumentales y jur��dicos que alentaron el proceso de su desmantelamiento, y revelando la influencia de los condicionantes geogr��ficos y naturales en la especializaci��n funcional y segregaci��n social en el conjunto del ��rea Metropolitana de Madrid. Se remata el discurso metropolitano con una bater��a de conclusiones que interpretan el fen��meno de ocupaci��n del anillo de verdor metropolitano confirmando las hip��tesis iniciales, reconociendo los valores medioambientales y culturales trasgredidos, sus diversos actores, las numerosas operaciones urban��sticas desarrolladas con distintos usos y envergadura, as�� como los instrumentos de planeamiento utilizados, en base a las cuales se materializa la construcci��n del AMM seg��n un modelo extendido (spread), dibujando una mancha de aceite (o grase-spots seg��n Geddes) que precisamente hab��a querido evitarse desde el planeamiento urban��stico con la definici��n de un Anillo Verde, espacio inmune a la edificaci��n, que se aleja de su papel estructurante (equilibrador entre la ciudad y sus habitantes) para convertirse en armadura de la estructura comunicativa, que una vez consolidada se convierte en la mejor aliada de la m��quina inmobiliaria. El ��ltimo paso, se desarrolla en el bloque III que se divide en los cap��tulo 7,8 y 9 y supone la comprobaci��n de lo descrito en el conjunto de escala metropolitana, en dos aspectos fundamentales, la falta de consideraci��n por los valores culturales y medioambientales que han modelado el territorio, imprimi��ndole un car��cter singular y espec��fico y, la estructura del dominio del suelo, donde se reconoce de forma precisa el grupo social y los agentes encargados en cada momento de comercializar los suelos del anillo, que bajo el paraguas de la urgencia social y el enga��oso beneficio popular, obtienen importantes beneficios econ��micos. Con esa intenci��n, se da un salto hacia la escala municipal y urbana, seleccionando dos escenarios de estudio, el municipio de Pozuelo de Alarc��n, que representa la materializaci��n del crecimiento suburbano de la ��lite madrile��a ocupando las zonas de mayor valor ecol��gico del anillo, y el distrito de Hortaleza-Barajas que ofrece su territorio a las grandes operaciones metropolitanas, apoy��ndose en el eje de actividad marcado por la conexi��n Madrid-Barcelona y el sistema aeroportuario de escala global, ambos situados al norte de la l��nea de borde entre la Sierra y la Mancha, ocupando por tanto los lugares m��s valiosos de la geograf��a madrile��a (estructura funcional anticipada por Bidagor en 1946 en su modelo de ciudad adaptada al territorio madrile��o) Una vez descrito este proceso trasgresor de l��mites, de normas, de conductas, y desde una perspectiva del fen��meno suficientemente documentada, en el cap��tulo 10, se realiza una reflexi��n sobre la incidencia real de la propuesta urban��stica del Anillo Verde en la construcci��n del AMM, de la misma forma que se sugieren nuevos roles al planeamiento en un formato intencionado de largo recorrido en oposici��n a lo inmediato y circunstancial, que permita hacer una nueva lectura de los presupuestos te��ricos que conformaban la idea del Anillo Verde, espacio articulador (medioambiental, social y cultural) del territorio madrile��o. ABSTRACT The Metropolitan Greenbelt was defined by the 1963 Master Plan for the Madrid Metropolitan Area (MMA), following established international models of urban development, as the structural framework of the MMA, the principal open space within its network of open spaces and a public area of recreation and contact with nature for the residents of Madrid. In reality, however, it ha become a reserve of land in which various alliances between the institutional authorities and the dominant social class have been operating on the margin of the original plan, exposing a scarcity of legal and cultural resources for the safeguarding of common interests, and in which the geographical and natural characteristics of the territory itself have come to play an influential role in the functional specialization and spatial segregation of the MMA. With that idea as its HYPOTHESIS, the aim of this THESIS is to demonstrate its reality. The first step in this is to delineate, temporally and spatially, the object of study; i.e. the Metropolitan Greenbelt2. The second is to contextualize historically and disciplinarily those theoretical ideas which conform to the greenbelt concept. The third is to acknowledge, locate and document the elements which have characterized the urban occupation of the Greenbelt and classify these according to the parameters of time, function, urban development and form, which in turn would enable the geography, use, instrumentation and form of its transformation to be analysed on a general metropolitan scale. The fourth step, as a method of verification, is an in-depth analysis of two representative settings within the metropolitan network: the municipality of Pozuelo de Alarc��n and the Hortaleza-Barajas district. The content of the document is divided into three parts. Part I focuses on the study���s theoretical foundations, Part II establishes a line of argument at the metropolitan level and Part III examines the phenomenon from a municipal and urban perspective. The thesis, then, begins with a study of the greenbelt concept itself and its meaning, which is far more complex than the accepted instrumental dimension of limiting and containing urbanization in response to the growth of the industrial city of the early 20th century, and which is based on a decentralization of the traditional city. This wider purpose is the setting aside of a large reserved space to safeguard the natural and cultural values of the region and thereby achieve a balance between the city and its residents; that is to say, between man and the space he inhabits. The principal currents of thought in urban planning will then be examined. These have drawn upon a variety of disciplines (economics, sociology, geography, biology, ecology) to develop theories for establishing a new urban order according to the principles of social, economic and environmental equity, and have involved a constant interchange between Europe and the United States. Thus, the City Garden and Regionalist movements would clear the way for proposals such as Greater London and Great Berlin, Chicago and Washington, in which the greenbelt would play a fundamental role. The participation of our own country and the city of Madrid is also discussed, through regional models such as the Besteiro Plan and urban ones like the Bidagor Plan, direct forerunners of 1963���s General Organizational Plan for the Madrid Metropolitan Area, which would set into motion the organization of Madrid���s metropolitan growth. The line of argument followed in this thesis is two-fold: first, an examination of metropolitan development in keeping with the city model as defined in the various General Plans for the development of both the municipality of Madrid and the seven surrounding municipalities which have land designated for its Greenbelt; and second, an examination of this growth in relation to Regional Planning measures, is detailed on a smaller scale (municipal and district), where the conditioning factors affecting the land property structure and the network of biophysical units may be analysed in depth. The first of these is dealt with in Part II and organized into three chapters (4, 5 and 6). Chapter 4 is dedicated to the obligatory starting point of the geographical setting itself. The biophysical characteristics of the territories set aside for the Greenbelt, and which historically have played a role in the area���s exploitation, are described here. These range from expanses of Mediterranean woodland to the north and west of Monte del Pardo to the various types of farmland that have been adapted to the geological substratum and the contours of the terrain (gentle undulations of arkosic sediment in the north, and wide sandy and gypsiferous tableland in the south), as well as orchards planted in low valleys and along watercourses (the creeks of Monte Carmelo, Valdebebas, Quinto, Santo, Butarque, Meaques and Pozuelo). Once this physical reality ha been detailed, in Chapter 5 will examine the various city models proposed by urban planners, both regionally and municipally, in response to the confluence of social, economic and political interests that have characterized the process of occupation in the Greenbelt area during the construction of the MMA. Municipal planning proposals will be collected and examined for the various municipalities which have land designated for the Greenbelt: Madrid, Coslada, Getafe, Legan��s, Alcorc��n, Boadilla del Monte and Pozuelo de Alarc��n. Furthermore, the various territorial organization proposals which have served as references for municipal planning will also be addressed here, in all of their versions ���from the sectorial, which have met with more success and institutional approval, to the many attempts at integration, which have been more complex but less influential, precisely for the difficulty of reconciling physical organization with economic development, and private interest with public benefit. The first period in this process was the development of the General Plan of 1963, followed by the first municipal development plans of the 1970s, in which the need for a regional framework that ���organized��� the territory in an integral fashion was defined. This would serve as a reference for the sectorial actions that marked the metropolitan area���s initial development. The second came two decades later with the approval of the General Plan of 1985, and the network of municipal plans for the surrounding communities, which followed the same philosophy of austerity with regard to territorial growth. The third would begin to take form in 1997, as a new generation of neo-liberal development plans imposed a territorial model based on centralized large-scale metropolitan operations of infrastructure and equipment, which would indiscriminately consume the totality of Madrid���s land. At the end of the Part II, in Chapter 6, the metropolitan area will be represented graphically and the 229 pieces that have been gradually encroaching upon land designated for the Greenbelt will be analysed. This analysis will be carried out according to the parameters defined for the study, and the first general conclusions of the thesis will be based on its findings. It will show how alliances between the various governing authorities in the construction of the city and its environment have successively violated established plans with regard to the definitions of city and territory, how shortages of instrumental and judicial resources have accentuated the dismantling process, and how natural and geographical factors have influenced functional specialization and social segregation in the Madrid Metropolitan Area. The final step, detailed in Part III, will address two fundamental aspects of what has just been described: the lack of consideration for the cultural and environmental values which have shaped this territory and imprinted upon it a specific and unique character; and the structure of land domination, with a precise identification of the social group and agents responsible at each stage of the Greenbelt���s commercialization, who, under an umbrella of social urgency and deceptive public benefit, have used it to obtain substantial financial rewards. For this purpose, a closer look is taken at two specific areas: the municipality of Pozuelo de Alarc��n, representative of the suburban growth of an elite population which has occupied the Greenbelt areas of the greatest ecological value; and the Hortaleza-Barajas district, which has offered its territory to large metropolitan business interests, based on activities centred on the connection between Madrid and Barcelona and the system of international air travel. Both of these settings are located to the north of the line which divides the Sierra from La Mancha, and thus occupy the most valuable land in the Madrid region (a functional structure anticipated by Bidagor in 1946, with his city model adapted to the territory of Madrid). Finally, an attempt will be made to interpret the phenomenon of metropolitan Greenbelt occupation, confirming initial hypotheses, specifying the environmental and cultural values that have been violated, and identifying the various players involved, as well as numerous urbanization operations of varying sizes and interests, and the instruments of planning they have used. It will be seen from this that the construction of the MMA has in fact followed a ���spread��� model, a ���grease spot��� (as Geddes calls it) which, from the outset of the planning process and according to the definition of a greenbelt as a construction-free zone, was precisely to be avoided. This structural role (to provide a balance between a city and its residents) has thus been abandoned and the Greenbelt converted instead into a communicative framework which, once consolidated, has become the greatest ally of the real estate machine. After this process of violating limits, norms and established behaviour has been described and solidly documented, a reflection will be made on the real influence of the Greenbelt proposal in the construction of the MMA. At the same time, new roles will be suggested for future planning, roles which are deliberate and long term, in opposition to the immediate and circumstantial. This will enable a new interpretation of the theoretical principles behind the greenbelt concept, a space designed to connect the territory of Madrid environmentally, socially and culturally.