Intelligence and the psychological refractory period: A lateralized readiness potential study

The psychological refractory period (PRP) refers to a delay of response times (RT) to the second of two stimuli when these stimuli are presented in rapid succession. If this limitation of rapidly processing the second stimulus contributes to the well-known differences in speed of information processing between individuals with higher and lower mental ability, individuals with lower mental ability should exhibit a more pronounced PRP effect than individuals with higher mental ability. Previous studies on this question, however, yielded inconsistent results. In the present study, we assessed mental ability-related differences in the PRP by measuring lateralized readiness potentials (LRPs) to separate premotor and motor aspects of speed of information processing in 95 individuals with higher and 95 individuals with lower mental ability. Although individuals with higher mental ability processed information faster than individuals with lower mental ability as indicated by shorter RTs and shorter premotor LRP latencies, the PRP effect was equally pronounced in both groups. These findings suggest that the processes underlying the PRP effect do not contribute to mental ability-related differences in speed of information processing. Rather, these differences seem to occur at an earlier stage of information processing such as stimulus encoding, stimulus analysis, or stimulus evaluation.

A fixed-links modeling approach to assess individual differences in the attentional blink: Analysis of behavioral and psychophysiological data

The attentional blink (AB) is a fundamental limitation of the ability to select relevant information from irrelevant information. It can be observed with the detection rate in an AB task as well as with the corresponding P300 amplitude of the event-related potential. In previous research, however, correlations between these two levels of observation were weak and rather inconsistent. A possible explanation of this finding might be that multiple processes underlie the AB and, thus, obscure a possible relationship between AB-related detection rate and the corresponding P300 amplitude. The present study investigated this assumption by applying a fixed-links modeling approach to represent behavioral individual differences in the AB as a latent variable. Concurrently, this approach enabled us to control for additional sources of variance in AB performance by deriving two additional latent variables. The correlation between the latent variable reflecting behavioral individual differences in AB magnitude and a corresponding latent variable derived from the P300 amplitude was high (r=.70). Furthermore, this correlation was considerably stronger than the correlations of other behavioral measures of the AB magnitude with their psychophysiological counterparts (all rs<.40). Our findings clearly indicate that the systematic disentangling of various sources of variance by utilizing the fixed-links modeling approach is a promising tool to investigate behavioral individual differences in the AB and possible psychophysiological correlates of these individual differences.

What’s the best method? Comparison of different short forms oft he Pathological Narcissism Inventory

Recent research emphasizes the various facets of narcissism. As a consequence, newly developed questionnaires for narcissism have a large number of subscales and items. However, for the daily use in research and practice, short measures are crucial. In this study we compare different short forms of the Pathological Narcissism Questionnaire, a 54 item measure with seven subscales. In different samples (total N>2000) we applied different theoretical models to construct short forms of approximately 20 items. In particular, we compared IRT, item-total correlation, and factor loading based short forms and versions based on content validity and random selection. In all versions the original subscale structure was preserved. Results show that the short forms all have high correlations with the original version. Furthermore, correlations with criterion validation measures were comparable. We conclude that the item number can be reduced substantially without loosing information. Pros and cons of the different reduction methods are discussed.

How to measure Narcissism – an ongoing discussion

Over the last decades, research on narcissism was dominated with a focus on grandiose narcissism as measured by the NPI (Raskin & Terry, 1988), however, recent discussions emphasize the broad range of manifestations of narcissism, in particular more vulnerable aspects. As a result, new questionnaires were developed to cover the full range of these aspects. One example is the Pathological Narcissism Scale (PNI, Pincus et al. 2009), a 52 item questionnaire with seven subscales covering both grandiose and vulnerable aspects. Validation studies show that narcissism as measured with the PNI differs substantially from narcissism as measured with the NPI. Moreover, a discussion concerning the composition of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism has evolved from these data. In our study we demonstrate how scores on narcissism and narcissism subtypes are associated with a broad variety of personality and clinical measures. In a sample of 1837 participants (1240 female, 597 male; mean age 26.8 years) we investigated the correlation patterns of both PNI and NPI subscales with constructs like FFM, aggression, emotions, clinical symptoms, and well-being. Results show that the assignment of subscales to grandiose and vulnerable subtypes are not unambiguous. We therefore conclude that the decision of how to measure narcissism needs further investigation.

Differential effects of biological sex and relationship status on aspects of sociosexuality

Individuals differ in their orientation toward uncommitted sexual encounters. While previous research has given much emphasis on biological sex as important factor of influence, social determinants, such as relationship status, have been rather ignored. In the present study, the effects of biological sex and relationship status were investigated in a sample of 501 heterosexual adults (mean age: 28.1 years; 71.7 % female). Two-way analyses of variance yielded main effects of biological sex on Sociosexual Attitude and Desire implying men to be more permissive than women with regard to both facets. Relationship status had a main effect on Sociosexual Desire with singles having more permissive motivations than partnered individuals. Concerning Sociosexual Behavior, an interaction between biological sex and relationship status emerged indicating men to be more permissive than women among partnered individuals, but not among singles. Our results complement earlier research by highlighting the differential influence of biological sex and relationship status on aspects of sociosexuality.

Elucidating underlying processes of psychometric intelligence: A comparison of behavioral response latency and P3 latency in a modified Hick reaction time paradigm

The mental speed approach explains individual differences in intelligence by faster information processing in individuals with higher compared to lower intelligence - especially in elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs). One of the most examined ECTs is the Hick paradigm. The present study aimed to contrast reaction time (RT) and P3 latency in a Hick task as predictors of intelligence. Although both, RT and P3 latency, are commonly used as indicators of mental speed, it is also known that they measure different aspects of information processing. Participants were 113 female students. RT and P3 latency were measured while participants completed the Hick task with four levels of complexity. Intelligence was assessed with Cattell's Culture Fair Test. A RT factor and a P3 factor were extracted by employing a PCA across complexity levels. There was no significant correlation between the factors. Commonality analysis was used to determine the proportions of unique and shared variance in intelligence explained by the RT and P3 latency factors. RT and P3 latency explained 5.5% and 5% of unique variance in intelligence. However, the two speed factors did not explain a significant portion of shared variance. This result suggests that RT and P3 latency in the Hick paradigm are measuring different aspects of information processing that explain different parts of variance in intelligence.

Decomposing speed of information processing in elementary cognitive tasks

Many studies obtained reliable individual differences in speed of information processing (SIP) as measured by elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs). ECTs usually employ response times (RT) as measure of SIP, but different ECTs target different cognitive processes (e.g., simple or choice reaction, inhibition). Here we used modified versions of the Hick and the Eriksen Flanker task to examine whether these tasks assess dissociable or common aspects of SIP. In both tasks, task complexity was systematically varied across three levels. RT data were collected from 135 participants. Applying fixed-links modeling, RT variance increasing with task complexity was separated from RT variance unchanging across conditions. For each task, these aspects of variance were represented by two independent latent variables. The two latent variables representing RT variance not varying with complexity of the two tasks were virtually identical (r = .83). The latent variables representing increasing complexity in the two tasks were also highly correlated (r = .72) but clearly dissociable. Thus, RT measures contain both task-unspecific, person-related aspects of SIP as well as task-specific aspects indicating the cognitive processes manipulated with the respective task. Separating these aspects of SIP facilitates the interpretation of individual differences in RT.

The impact of the position effect on the factorial structure of the Culture Fair Test (CFT)

The Culture Fair Test (CFT) is a psychometric test of fluid intelligence consisting of four subtests; Series, Classification, Matrices, and Topographies. The four subtests are only moderately intercorrelated, doubting the notion that they assess the same construct (i.e., fluid intelligence). As an explanation of these low correlations, we investigated the position effect. This effect is assumed to reflect implicit learning during testing. By applying fixed-links modeling to analyze the CFT data of 206 participants, we identified position effects as latent variables in the subtests; Classification, Matrices, and Topographies. These position effects were disentangled from a second set of latent variables representing fluid intelligence inherent in the four subtests. After this separation of position effect and basic fluid intelligence, the latent variables representing basic fluid intelligence in the subtests Series, Matrices, and Topographies could be combined to one common latent variable which was highly correlated with fluid intelligence derived from the subtest Classification (r=.72). Correlations between the three latent variables representing the position effects in the Classification, Matrices, and Topographies subtests ranged from r=.38 to r=.59. The results indicate that all four CFT subtests measure the same construct (i.e., fluid intelligence) but that the position effect confounds the factorial structure

The position effect in a Rasch-homogenous test: A fixed-links modeling approach.

The position effect describes the influence of just-completed items in a psychological scale on subsequent items. This effect has been repeatedly reported for psychometric reasoning scales and is assumed to reflect implicit learning during testing. One way to identify the position effect is fixed-links modeling. With this approach, two latent variables are derived from the test items. Factor loadings of one latent variable are fixed to 1 for all items to represent ability-related variance. Factor loadings on the second latent variable increase from the first to the last item describing the position effect. Previous studies using fixed-links modeling on the position effect investigated reasoning scales constructed in accordance with classical test theory (e.g., Raven’s Progressive Matrices) but, to the best of our knowledge, no Rasch-scaled tests. These tests, however, meet stronger requirements on item homogeneity. In the present study, therefore, we will analyze data from 239 participants who have completed the Rasch-scaled Viennese Matrices Test (VMT). Applying a fixed-links modeling approach, we will test whether a position effect can be depicted as a latent variable and separated from a latent variable representing basic reasoning ability. The results have implications for the assumption of homogeneity in Rasch-homogeneous tests.

Narcissism and emotional contagion: do narcissists “catch” the emotions of others?

In this research, we investigated the association between narcissism and one central aspect of empathy, susceptibility for emotional contagion (the transfer of emotional states from one person to another). In an experimental study (N=101), we were able to compare actual susceptibility for emotional contagion (as indicated by a change in emotions that converges with the emotions of another person) and self-reported susceptibility for emotional contagion (assessed via questionnaire). Results showed that in the case of positive emotions, narcissists were actually less susceptible to emotional contagion than individuals low in narcissism. At the same time, however, narcissists believed they were more susceptible to contagion of positive emotions. Thus, narcissists were less likely to “catch the positive emotions” of others than individuals low in narcissism, but at the same time lacked the self-insight capabilities to notice this.

Wo sind die Schülerinnen? Eine Bild- und Textanalyse zu Geschlechter(un)gerechtigkeit in deutschen Schulbüchern

Kinder- und Schulbücher erreichen eine große Anzahl von Leserinnen und Lesern. Sie dienen nicht nur der Vermittlung von Wissen, sondern transportieren auch gesellschaftliche Werte, Normen und Stereotype über verschiedene soziale Gruppen (z.B. Markom & Weinhäupl, 2007). Vor diesem Hintergrund haben sich seit mehr als 40 Jahren viele Studien der Frage gewidmet, inwiefern Kinder- und Schulbücher zum gesellschaftlichen Konsens von Geschlechter(un)gerechtigkeit beitragen (z.B. Fichera, 1996; Finsterwald & Ziegler, 2007; Lindner & Lukesch, 1994). Die Darstellung von traditionellen Rollenbildern sowie die Unterrepräsentation von weiblichen im Vergleich zu männlichen Charakteren gaben dabei Anlass zur Kritik, weil Kindern dadurch nur eingeschränkte Identifikationsmöglichkeiten zur Verfügung stehen (z.B. Diekman & Murnen, 2004). Seit den ersten Studien zu geschlechtergerechten Darstellungen in Büchern hat sich die gesellschaftliche und soziale Situation von Frauen und Männern und der gesellschaftliche Diskurs über Geschlecht sehr verändert (Wilde & Diekman, 2005). Deshalb stellt sich im vorliegenden Beitrag die Frage, ob diese Veränderungen in neuen, in Deutschland zugelassenen Schulbüchern auch gefunden werden. Mittels Inhaltsanalyse (Mayring, 2003) wurden jeweils neun Schulbücher für die Fächer Deutsch und Mathematik der Klassenstufen eins, drei und fünf, die nach dem Inkrafttreten des Bundesgleichstellungsgesetzes (2001) herausgegeben wurden, analysiert und verglichen. Mittels Zufallsauswahl wurden jeweils 10% der Gesamtanzahl an Seiten eines jeden Buches untersucht. Der Fokus der Analyse lag dabei auf den beiden am meisten kritisierten Aspekten vergangener Studien: (1) den Häufigkeiten der Darstellung von weiblichen und männlichen Charakteren sowie (2) deren Aktivitäten und Rollen. Darüber hinaus schließt die Analyse auch ein in den vergangenen Jahren kaum untersuchtes subtileres Merkmal geschlechter(un)gerechter Darstellungen mit ein: (3) die Verwendung von geschlechter(un)gerechter Sprache (Moser, Hannover, & Becker, 2013). Wie eine Reihe von Studien zeigte, führt die Verwendung von generisch männlichen Personenbezeichnungen dazu, dass sich Rezipierende weniger weibliche Personen vorstellen, als wenn geschlechtergerechte Sprachformen verwendet werden (z.B. Stahlberg, Braun, Irmen, & Sczesny, 2007). Gerade im Schulkontext sollte jedoch die Verwendung von geschlechtergerechter Sprache von besonderer Bedeutung sein, um stereotypische Vorstellungen abzubauen. Die Ergebnisse unserer Studie (Moser & Hannover, 2014) zeigen, dass auch in neuen Mathematikbüchern männliche Charaktere häufiger vertreten sind als weibliche. Für die Deutschbücher fand sich dieses Ergebnis nur für die Darstellung erwachsener Personen. Für beide Schulfächer zeigte sich, dass insgesamt weibliche und männliche Charaktere gleich oft vielen verschiedenen und nicht nur stereotypischen Aktivitäten nachgingen. Anlass zur Kritik geben aber, wie bereits in früheren Studien, die familiären und beruflichen Rollen erwachsener Charaktere. Männer wurden im Vergleich zu Frauen häufiger in beruflichen Tätigkeiten dargestellt, während Frauen im Vergleich zu Männern häufiger in ihrer familiären Rolle als Mutter oder Großmutter dargestellt waren. Geschlechtergerechte Sprache wurde in den Büchern zu beiden Schulfächern angewendet, jedoch wurde die Anwendung nicht konsequent umgesetzt. Zusammengefasst zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass neue Schulbücher im Vergleich zu früheren geschlechtergerechter geworden sind, sie aber nach wie vor auf subtile Weise zur sozialen Konstruktion der Ungleichheit der Geschlechter beitragen. Diekman & Murnen, 2004). Seit den ersten Studien zu geschlechtergerechten Darstellungen in Büchern hat sich die gesellschaftliche und soziale Situation von Frauen und Männern und der gesellschaftliche Diskurs über Geschlecht sehr verändert (Wilde & Diekman, 2005). Deshalb stellt sich im vorliegenden Beitrag die Frage, ob diese Veränderungen in neuen, in Deutschland zugelassenen Schulbüchern auch gefunden werden. Mittels Inhaltsanalyse (Mayring, 2003) wurden jeweils neun Schulbücher für die Fächer Deutsch und Mathematik der Klassenstufen eins, drei und fünf, die nach dem Inkrafttreten des Bundesgleichstellungsgesetzes (2001) herausgegeben wurden, analysiert und verglichen. Mittels Zufallsauswahl wurden jeweils 10% der Gesamtanzahl an Seiten eines jeden Buches untersucht. Der Fokus der Analyse lag dabei auf den beiden am meisten kritisierten Aspekten vergangener Studien: (1) den Häufigkeiten der Darstellung von weiblichen und männlichen Charakteren sowie (2) deren Aktivitäten und Rollen. Darüber hinaus schließt die Analyse auch ein in den vergangenen Jahren kaum untersuchtes subtileres Merkmal geschlechter(un)gerechter Darstellungen mit ein: (3) die Verwendung von geschlechter(un)gerechter Sprache (Moser, Hannover, & Becker, 2013). Wie eine Reihe von Studien zeigte, führt die Verwendung von generisch männlichen Personenbezeichnungen dazu, dass sich Rezipierende weniger weibliche Personen vorstellen, als wenn geschlechtergerechte Sprachformen verwendet werden (z.B. Stahlberg, Braun, Irmen, & Sczesny, 2007). Gerade im Schulkontext sollte jedoch die Verwendung von geschlechtergerechter Sprache von besonderer Bedeutung sein, um stereotypische Vorstellungen abzubauen. Die Ergebnisse unserer Studie (Moser & Hannover, 2014) zeigen, dass auch in neuen Mathematikbüchern männliche Charaktere häufiger vertreten sind als weibliche. Für die Deutschbücher fand sich dieses Ergebnis nur für die Darstellung erwachsener Personen. Für beide Schulfächer zeigte sich, dass insgesamt weibliche und männliche Charaktere gleich oft vielen verschiedenen und nicht nur stereotypischen Aktivitäten nachgingen. Anlass zur Kritik geben aber, wie bereits in früheren Studien, die familiären und beruflichen Rollen erwachsener Charaktere. Männer wurden im Vergleich zu Frauen häufiger in beruflichen Tätigkeiten dargestellt, während Frauen im Vergleich zu Männern häufiger in ihrer familiären Rolle als Mutter oder Großmutter dargestellt waren. Geschlechtergerechte Sprache wurde in den Büchern zu beiden Schulfächern angewendet, jedoch wurde die Anwendung nicht konsequent umgesetzt. Zusammengefasst zeigen die Ergebnisse, dass neue Schulbücher im Vergleich zu früheren geschlechtergerechter geworden sind, sie aber nach wie vor auf subtile Weise zur sozialen Konstruktion der Ungleichheit der Geschlechter beitragen.