Observing population changes of thrips (Thysanoptera) species damaging forced pepper and their natural enemies

By the strengthening of environmental protection and food safety efforts in Hungary, integrated and especially biological pest control methods should increasingly put forward, for which a solid knowledge on the life course and efficiency of natural enemies applied against certain pests is necessary. Pepper has distinguished significance in domestic vegetable forcing, and the profitability of production is determined primarily by the efficiency of the control of thrips pests. This is why we attached great importance to study what results may be expected by introducing arthropod predators (Amblyseius cucumeris, Orius laevigatus) to control thrips species under domestic conditions on rock wool in a long vegetation period pepper culture. We also liked to find out what kind of role the cultivars play in the change of phytophagous and zoophagous populations. The A. cucumeris predatory mite introduced in late January proved to be effective in controlling thrips pests until mid-April. Despite repeated introductions, the predatory bug O. laevigatus (Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) did not proliferate. Among the three pepper cultivars (Hó, Keceli, Titán) grown at Ráckeve, thrips species proliferated in the highest number on cultivar ‘Hó’, while the population of predatory mites was lowest on the cultivar ‘Titán’, compared to the other two cultivars.

Vegetation dynamics and their implications for the management of wetlands in the lowlands of Nepal

The maintenance of species richness is often a priority in the management of nature reserves, where consumptive use of resources is generally prohibited. The purpose of this research was to improve management by understanding the vegetation dynamics in the lowlands of Nepal. The objectives were to determine vegetation associations in relation to environments and human-induced disturbances that affect vegetation dynamics on floodplains, where upstream barrages had altered flooding patterns, and consumptive use of plant resources was influencing natural processes. Floodplain vegetation in relation to physical environments and disturbances were studied along transects, perpendicular to the course of the Mahakali River in the western Terai, Nepal. Forest structural changes were studied for three years in ten plots. A randomized split-block experiment with nine burning and grazing treatments was performed in seasonally flooded grasslands. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to assess people's socio-economic status, natural resource use patterns and conservation attitudes. ^ Elevation, soil organic matter, nitrogen, percentage of sand and grazing intensity were significant in delineating herbaceous vegetation assemblages, whereas elevation and livestock grazing were significant in defining forest type boundaries. On the floodplain islands, highly grazed Dalbergia sissoo-Acacia catechu forests were devoid of understory woody vegetation, but the lightly grazed D. sissoo-mixed forests had a well-developed second canopy layer, comprising woody species other than D. sissoo and A. catechu. In grasslands, species richness and biomass production were highest at intermediate disturbance level represented by the lightly grazed and ungrazed early-burned treatments. Ethnicity, education and resource use patterns were important in influencing conservation attitudes. A succession towards the mixed forests would occur in D. sissoo-dominated floodplain forests, where dams and barrages reduce flooding and associated fluvial processes, and if livestock grazing is stopped, as occasionally suggested by nature conservationists. In seasonally flooded grasslands, early burning with moderate grazing would enhance the species diversity and productivity. There is a need to implement a participatory integrated wetland management plan, to include community development, education and off farm income generation, to assure participatory conservation and management of wetlands in Nepal. ^

Predictors of first semester attrition and their relation to retention of generic associate degree nursing students

In community college nursing programs the high rate of attrition was a major concern to faculty and administrators. Since first semester attrition could lead to permanent loss of students and low retention in nursing programs, it was important to identify at-risk students early and develop proactive approaches to assist them to be successful. The goal of nursing programs was to graduate students who were eligible to take the national council licensing examination (RN). This was especially important during a time of critical shortage in the nursing workforce. ^ This study took place at a large, multi-campus community college, and used Tinto's (1975) Student Integration Model of persistence as the framework. A correlational study was conducted to determine whether the independent variables, past academic achievement, English proficiency, achievement tendency, weekly hours of employment and financial resources, could discriminate between the two grade groups, pass and not pass. Establishing the relationship between the selected variables and successful course completion might be used to reduce attrition and improve retention. Three research instruments were used to collect data. A Demographic Information form developed by the researcher was used to obtain academic data, the research questionnaire Measure of Achieving Tendency measured achievement motivation, and the Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE), Form 8, Level A, Tests 1, 4, and 5 measured the level of English proficiency. The Department of Nursing academic policy, requiring a minimum course grade of “C” or better was used to determine the final course outcome. A stepwise discriminant analysis procedure indicated that college language level and pre-semester grade point average were significant predictors of final course outcome. ^ Based on the findings of the study recommendations focused on assessing students' English proficiency prior to admission into the nursing program, an intensive remediation plan in language comprehension for at-risk students, and the selection of alternate textbooks and readings that more closely matched the English proficiency level of the students. A pilot study should be conducted to investigate the benefit of raising the admission grade point average. ^

Selecting a college or university: A study of students and their parents

This case study investigated the decision-making process of high-achieving high school students and their parents in selecting a college or university. The conceptual framework that guided this study included theoretical and empirical research framed around a three-phase model of college choice. Parental influence dominated the first phase of this model. The search phase, which was the second and the most crucial one, included financial considerations related to this decision, admissions considerations during the search phase, the psychology of decision making, and advertising strategies for teenagers. Once students completed the search phase they developed expectations of the institutions they considered prior to making the final decision. The study employed qualitative methods using individual interviews with students and their parents. ^ Six high-achieving high school seniors from a South Florida high school and their parents were selected to participate in this study. Of these students, four were female and two were male. Participants were individually interviewed on two separate occasions over a three-month period. Students and their parents were interviewed separately, with one exception, during the first set of interviews and together during the second. The data obtained from these interviews were transcribed and these transcripts were coded, categorized, analyzed, and sorted into major themes and submitted to interpretive analysis. ^ In-depth descriptions of participants' experiences during the decision-making process are described in the study. Financial factors—which included the cost of college, the socio-economic status of the family, and scholarship possibilities—drove the selection process for these students and their parents, most of whom reported their family incomes between the lower-middle to upper-middle class range. All of these students took advantage of the Bright Futures Scholarship Program, other scholarship opportunities, and the lower tuition costs of in-state public institutions. The effectiveness of recruitment techniques, such as brochures, campus visits, the development of college Web sites, and the overall impact of Internet resources, was assessed by the researcher. ^ As these students had progressed through the search phase, they developed perceptions of potential institutions as they were assisted by those around them. The value of familiarity with institutions and the use of heuristics were quite evident in the final analysis of this study, based on what the students communicated about how their knowledge of and comfort in these institutions affected their decisions. Parental influence played an important role in the selection process for the students in this study as the parents clearly directed the process, by the constant advice they gave their children and by the financial limitations they communicated to them. ^

Evaluation of contact and non-contact trapping efficiencies of human scent chemical profiles and their stabilities under different environmental conditions

Establishing an association between the scent a perpetrator left at a crime scene to the odor of the suspect of that crime is the basis for the use of human scent identification evidence in a court of law. Law enforcement agencies gather evidence through the collection of scent from the objects that a perpetrator may have handled during the execution of the criminal act. The collected scent evidence is consequently presented to the canines for identification line-up procedures with the apprehended suspects. Presently, canine scent identification is admitted as expert witness testimony, however, the accurate behavior of the dogs and the scent collection methods used are often challenged by the court system. The primary focus of this research project entailed an evaluation of contact and non-contact scent collection techniques with an emphasis on the optimization of collection materials of different fiber chemistries to evaluate the chemical odor profiles obtained using varying environment conditions to provide a better scientific understanding of human scent as a discriminative tool in the identification of suspects. The collection of hand odor from female and male subjects through both contact and non-contact sampling approaches yielded new insights into the types of VOCs collected when different materials are utilized, which had never been instrumentally performed. Furthermore, the collected scent mass was shown to be obtained in the highest amounts for both gender hand odor samples on cotton sorbent materials. Compared to non-contact sampling, the contact sampling methods yielded a higher number of volatiles, an enhancement of up to 3 times, as well as a higher scent mass than non-contact methods by more than an order of magnitude. The evaluation of the STU-100 as a non-contact methodology highlighted strong instrumental drawbacks that need to be targeted for enhanced scientific validation of current field practices. These results demonstrated that an individual's human scent components vary considerably depending on the method used to collect scent from the same body region. This study demonstrated the importance of collection medium selection as well as the collection method employed in providing a reproducible human scent sample that can be used to differentiate individuals.

Nutrient enrichment, grazer identity, and their effects on epiphytic algal assemblages: field experiments in subtropical turtlegrass Thalassia testudinum meadows

We tested the relative importance of top-down and bottom-up effects by experimentally evaluating the combined and separate effects of nutrient availability and grazer species composition on epiphyte communities and seagrass condition in Florida Bay. Although we succeeded in substantially enriching our experimental cylinders, as indicated by elevated nitrogen concentrations in epiphytes and seagrass leaves, we did not observe any major increases in epiphyte biomass or major loss of Thalassia testudinum by algal overgrowth. Additionally, we did not detect any strong grazer effects and found very few significant nutrient-grazer interactions. While this might suggest that there was no important differential response to nutrients by individual grazer species or by various combinations of grazers, our results were complicated by the lack of significant differences between control and grazer treatments, and as such, these results are best explained by the presence of unwanted amphipod grazers (mean = 471 ind. m–2) in the control cylinders. Our estimates of grazing rates and epiphyte productivities indicate that amphipods in the control cylinders could have lowered epiphyte biomass to the same level that the experimental grazers did, thus effectively transforming the control treatments into grazer treatments. If so, our experiments suggest that the effects of invertebrate grazing (and those of amphipods alone) were stronger than the effects of nutrient enrichment on epiphytic algae, and that it does not require a large density

Assessment of the occurrence and potential risks of antibiotics and their metabolites in South Florida waters using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry

An automated on-line SPE-LC-MS/MS method was developed for the quantitation of multiple classes of antibiotics in environmental waters. High sensitivity in the low ng/L range was accomplished by using large volume injections with 10-mL of sample. Positive confirmation of analytes was achieved using two selected reaction monitoring (SRM) transitions per antibiotic and quantitation was performed using an internal standard approach. Samples were extracted using online solid phase extraction, then using column switching technique; extracted samples were immediately passed through liquid chromatography and analyzed by tandem mass spectrometry. The total run time per each sample was 20 min. The statistically calculated method detection limits for various environmental samples were between 1.2 and 63 ng/L. Furthermore, the method was validated in terms of precision, accuracy and linearity. ^ The developed analytical methodology was used to measure the occurrence of antibiotics in reclaimed waters (n=56), surface waters (n=53), ground waters (n=8) and drinking waters (n=54) collected from different parts of South Florida. In reclaimed waters, the most frequently detected antibiotics were nalidixic acid, erythromycin, clarithromycin, azithromycin trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole and ofloxacin (19.3-604.9 ng/L). Detection of antibiotics in reclaimed waters indicates that they can't be completely removed by conventional wastewater treatment process. Furthermore, the average mass loads of antibiotics released into the local environment through reclaimed water were estimated as 0.248 Kg/day. Among the surface waters samples, Miami River (reaching up to 580 ng/L) and Black Creek canal (up to 124 ng/L) showed highest concentrations of antibiotics. No traces of antibiotics were found in ground waters. On the other hand, erythromycin (monitored as anhydro erythromycin) was detected in 82% of the drinking water samples (n.d-66 ng/L). The developed approach is suitable for both research and monitoring applications.^ Major metabolites of antibiotics in reclaimed wates were identified and quantified using high resolution benchtop Q-Exactive orbitrap mass spectrometer. A phase I metabolite of erythromycin was tentatively identified in full scan based on accurate mass measurement. Using extracted ion chromatogram (XIC), high resolution data-dependent MS/MS spectra and metabolic profiling software the metabolite was identified as desmethyl anhydro erythromycin with molecular formula C36H63NO12 and m/z 702.4423. The molar concentration of the metabolite to erythromycin was in the order of 13 %. To my knowledge, this is the first known report on this metabolite in reclaimed water. Another compound acetyl-sulfamethoxazole, a phase II metabolite of sulfamethoxazole was also identified in reclaimed water and mole fraction of the metabolite represent 36 %, of the cumulative sulfamethoxazole concentration. The results were illustrating the importance to include metabolites also in the routine analysis to obtain a mass balance for better understanding of the occurrence, fate and distribution of antibiotics in the environment. ^ Finally, all the antibiotics detected in reclaimed and surface waters were investigated to assess the potential risk to the aquatic organisms. The surface water antibiotic concentrations that represented the real time exposure conditions revealed that the macrolide antibiotics, erythromycin, clarithromycin and tylosin along with quinolone antibiotic, ciprofloxacin were suspected to induce high toxicity to aquatic biota. Preliminary results showing that, among the antibiotic groups tested, macrolides posed the highest ecological threat, and therefore, they may need to be further evaluated with, long-term exposure studies considering bioaccumulation factors and more number of species selected. Overall, the occurrence of antibiotics in aquatic environment is posing an ecological health concern.^

Trinidad multinationals and their effect on caribbean regionalization

The purpose of the thesis was to first, document the expansion of Trinidad's business sector and then to probe the implications of this expansion on Caribbean regionalization. The variables analyzed were physical expansion, technology and development and community involvement. The methodological approach used first, a theoretical approach based on the New Regionalism Approach (NRA) which best accounts for non-state actors (multinationals) and their role in the scheme of regionalization. Second, interviews were conducted with leaders of the major multinationals in Trinidad to ascertain their opinion on the role of multinationals in the regionalization process. Based on the case studies analyzed, namely Royal Bank Group of Companies and Trinidad Cement Holdings Limited, the findings of the thesis indicate that Trinidad multinationals are helping the process of Caribbean regionalization and consider themselves regional rather than national entities. It can be concluded that the growth of Trinidad multinationals will continue to be integral to the economic integration of the region.

Hourly values of X, Y and Z geomagnetic components recorded at Coimbra Station (IAGA code: COI) and local geomagnetic K indices for 2007 to 2014

This study examines the performance of series of two geomagnetic indices and series synthesized from a semi-empirical model of magnetospheric currents, in explaining the geomagnetic activity observed at Northern Hemipshere's mid-latitude ground-based stations. We analyse data, for the 2007 to 2014 period, from four magnetic observatories (Coimbra, Portugal; Panagyurishte, Bulgary; Novosibirsk, Russia and Boulder, USA), at geomagnetic latitudes between 40° and 50° N. The quiet daily (QD) variation is firstly removed from the time series of the geomagnetic horizontal component (H) using natural orthogonal components (NOC) tools. We compare the resulting series with series of storm-time disturbance (Dst) and ring current (RC) indices and with H series synthesized from the Tsyganenko and Sitnov (2005, doi:10.1029/2004JA010798) (TS05) semi-empirical model of storm-time geomagnetic field. In the analysis, we separate days with low and high local K-index values. Our results show that NOC models are as efficient as standard models of QD variation in preparing raw data to be compared with proxies, but with much less complexity. For the two stations in Europe, we obtain indication that NOC models could be able to separate ionospheric and magnetospheric contributions. Dst and RC series explain the four observatory H-series successfully, with values for the mean of significant correlation coefficients, from 0.5 to 0.6 during low geomagnetic activity (K less than 4) and from 0.6 to 0.7 for geomagnetic active days (K greater than or equal to 4). With regard to the performance of TS05, our results show that the four observatories separate into two groups: Coimbra and Panagyurishte, in one group, for which the magnetospheric/ionospheric ratio in QD variation is smaller, a dominantly QD ionospheric contribution can be removed and TS05 simulations are the best proxy; Boulder and Novosibirsk,in the other group, for which the ionospheric and magnetospheric contributions in QD variation can not be differentiated and correlations with TS05 series can not be made to improve. The main contributor to magnetospheric QD signal are Birkeland currents. The relatively good success of TS05 model in explaining ground-based irregular geomagnetic activity at mid-latitudes makes it an effective tool to classify storms according to their main sources. For Coimbra and Panagyurishte in particular, where ionospheric and magnetospheric daily contributions seem easier to separate, we can aspire to use the TS05 model for ensemble generation in space weather (SW) forecasting and interpretation of past SW events.

Ethnic differences in grains consumption and their contribution to intake of B-vitamins: results of the Multiethnic Cohort Study

Background: Research indicates that a diet rich in whole grains may reduce the risk of prevalent chronic diseases, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and some cancers, and that risk for these diseases varies by ethnicity. The objective of the current study was to identify major dietary sources of grains and describe their contribution to B vitamins in five ethnic groups. Methods. A cross-sectional mail survey was used to collect data from participants in the Multiethnic Cohort Study in Hawaii and Los Angeles County, United States, from 1993 to 1996. Dietary intake data collected using a quantitative food frequency questionnaire was available for 186,916 participants representing five ethnic groups (African American, Latino, Japanese American, Native Hawaiian and Caucasian) aged 45-75 years. The top sources of grain foods were determined, and their contribution to thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, and folic acid intakes were analyzed. Results: The top source of whole grains was whole wheat/rye bread for all ethnic-sex groups, followed by popcorn and cooked cereals, except for Native Hawaiian men and Japanese Americans, for whom brown/wild rice was the second top source; major contributors of refined grains were white rice and white bread, except for Latinos. Refined grain foods contributed more to grain consumption (27.1-55.6%) than whole grain foods (7.4-30.8%) among all ethnic-sex groups, except African American women. Grain foods made an important contribution to the intakes of thiamin (30.2-45.9%), riboflavin (23.1-29.2%), niacin (27.1-35.8%), vitamin B6 (22.9-27.5%), and folic acid (23.3-27.7%). Conclusions: This is the first study to document consumption of different grain sources and their contribution to B vitamins in five ethnic groups in the U.S. Findings can be used to assess unhealthful food choices, to guide dietary recommendations, and to help reduce risk of chronic diseases in these populations.

Interactions between nematodes, potato and soil-borne micro-organisms and their effect on the management of potato cyst nematodes

Potato cyst nematodes (PCN) cause significant damage to the potato crop worldwide and growers experience economic losses related to yield loss and the cost of control measures. Experiments were set up to further elucidate the complex tritrophic PCNpotato-soil bacteria relationship. Bacterial strains isolated from the sugar beet rhizosphere were shown to be hatch active towards Globodera pallida and to be capable of successfully colonising the sugar beet rhizosphere when applied exogenously. A trap-crop system, based on these isolates, was proposed. Ridge and bulk soil taken from a commercial potato field were incubated with sterile potato root leachate (sPRL) and subsequent in vitro hatching assays showed that PCN hatch was influenced by microorganisms present in the ridge, but not in the bulk soil. Community level physiological profiling (CLPP) of ridge and bulk soil, using BIOLOG EcoplatesTM, demonstrated differences in bacterial functional diversity between the two soil types. An investigation of the inter-species competition between G. pallida and G. rostochiensis showed that G. pallida performed significantly better, in terms of multiplication rate, in competition with G. rostochiensis compared to its multiplication rate in single-species populations. Effectively removing the early hatch of G. rostochiensis in pot trials led to the removal of this competitive advantage of G. pallida suggesting that this advantage was due, at least in part, to morphological changes to the root caused by the early hatching of G. rostochiensis.

US-Based Food and Agricultural Value Chains and Their Relevance to Healthy Diets.

This article examines the structure and health implications of two industries, chicken and tomatoes, that play prominent roles in US food and agricultural competitiveness. Both industries have become more concentrated over time, with powerful "lead firms" driving geographical, technological, and marketing changes. Overall, a processed food revolution has taken place in agricultural products that transforms the types of food and dietary options available to consumers. The nature of contemporary food and agricultural value chains affects the strategies and policies that can be effectively employed to address major health goals such as improved nutrition, food safety, and food security.

Nutritional status of lactating mothers and their children 6-23 months of age in pre- and post-harvest seasons in two agro-ecological zones of rural Ethiopia

The objective of this study was to assess seasonal variation in nutritional status and feeding practices among lactating mothers and their children 6-23 months of age in two different agro-ecological zones of rural Ethiopia (lowland zone and midland zone). Food availability and access are strongly affected by seasonality in Ethiopia. However, there are few published data on the effects of seasonal food fluctuations on nutritional status and dietary diversity patterns of mothers and children in rural Ethiopia. A longitudinal study was conducted among 216 mothers in two agro-ecological zones of rural Ethiopia during pre and post-harvest seasons. Data were collected on many parameters including anthropometry, blood levels of haemoglobin and ferritin and zinc, urinary iodine levels, questionnaire data regarding demographic and household parameters and health issues, and infant and young child feeding practices, 24 h food recall to determine dietary diversity scores, and household use of iodized salt. Chi-square and multivariable regression models were used to identify independent predictors of nutritional status. A wide variety of results were generated including the following highlights. It was found that 95.4% of children were breastfed, of whom 59.7% were initially breastfed within one hour of birth, 22.2% received pre-lacteal feeds, and 50.9% of children received complementary feedings by 6 months of age. Iron deficiency was found in 44.4% of children and 19.8% of mothers. Low Zinc status was found in 72.2% of children and 67.3% of mothers. Of the study subjects, 52.5% of the children and 19.1% of the mothers were anaemic, and 29.6% of children and 10.5% of mothers had iron deficiency anaemia. Among the mothers with low serum iron status, 81.2% and 56.2% of their children had low serum zinc and iron, respectively. Similarly, among the low serum zinc status mothers, 75.2% and 45.3% of their children had low serum in zinc and iron, respectively. There was a strong correlation between the micronutrient status of the mothers and the children for ferritin, zinc and haemoglobin (P <0.001). There was also statistically significant difference between agro-ecological zones for micronutrient deficiencies among the mothers (p<0.001) but not for their children. The majority (97.6%) of mothers in the lowland zone were deficient in at least one micronutrient biomarker (zinc or ferritin or haemoglobin). Deficiencies in one, two, or all three biomarkers of micronutrient status were observed in 48.1%, 16.7% and 9.9% of mothers and 35.8%, 29.0%, and 23.5%, of children, respectively. Additionally, about 42.6% of mothers had low levels of urinary iodine and 35.2% of lactating mothers had goitre. Total goitre prevalence rates and urinary iodine levels of lactating mothers were not significantly different across agro-ecological zones. Adequately iodised salt was available in 36.6% of households. The prevalence of anaemia increased from post-harvest (21.8%) to pre-harvest seasons (40.9%) among lactating mothers. Increases were from 8.6% to 34.4% in midland and from 34.2% to 46.3% in lowland agro-ecological zones. Fifteen percent of mothers were anaemic during both seasons. Predictors of anaemia were high parity of mother and low dietary diversity. The proportion of stunted and underweight children increased from 39.8% and 27% in post-harvest season to 46.0% and 31.8% in pre-harvest season, respectively. However, wasting in children decreased from 11.6% to 8.5%. Major variations in stunting and underweight were noted in midland compared to lowland agroecological zones. Anthropometric measurements in mothers indicated high levels of undernutrition. The prevalence of undernutrition in mothers (BMI <18.5kg/m2) increased from 41.7 to 54.7% between post- and pre-harvest seasons. The seasonal effect was generally higher in the midland community for all forms of malnutrition. Parity, number of children under five years and regional variation were predictors of low BMI among lactating mothers. There were differences in minimum meal frequency, minimum acceptable diet and dietary diversity in children in pre-harvest and post-harvest seasons and these parameters were poor in both seasons. Dietary diversity among mothers was higher in lowland zone but was poor in both zones across the seasons. In conclusion, malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies are very prevalent among lactating mothers and their children 6-23 months old in the study areas. There are significant seasonal variations in malnutrition and dietary diversity, in addition to significant differences between lowland and midland agro-ecological zones. These findings suggest a need to design effective preventive public health nutrition programs to address both the mothers’ and children’s needs particularly in the preharvest season.

Aboveground plant community and species-specific vegetation cover from the Jena Experiment (Main Experiment, year 2009)

This data set contains information on vegetation cover, i.e. the proportion of soil surface area that is covered by different categories of plants per estimated plot area. Data was collected on the plant community level (sown plant community, weed plant community, dead plant material, and bare ground) and on the level of individual plant species in case of the sown species. Data presented here is from the Main Experiment plots of a large grassland biodiversity experiment (the Jena Experiment; see further details below). In the main experiment, 82 grassland plots of 20 x 20 m were established from a pool of 60 species belonging to four functional groups (grasses, legumes, tall and small herbs). In May 2002, varying numbers of plant species from this species pool were sown into the plots to create a gradient of plant species richness (1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 60 species) and functional richness (1, 2, 3, 4 functional groups). Plots were maintained by bi-annual weeding and mowing. In 2009, vegetation cover was estimated twice in May and August just prior to mowing (during peak standing biomass) on all experimental plots of the Main Experiment. Cover was visually estimated in a central area of each plot 3 by 3 m in size (approximately 9 m²) using a decimal scale (Londo). Cover estimates for the individual species (and for target species + weeds + bare ground) can add up to more than 100% because the estimated categories represented a structure with potentially overlapping multiple layers. In 2009, in addition to the four community level cover estimates, cover of the moss layer was estimated.