The steel scrap age.

Steel production accounts for 25% of industrial carbon emissions. Long-term forecasts of steel demand and scrap supply are needed to develop strategies for how the steel industry could respond to industrialization and urbanization in the developing world while simultaneously reducing its environmental impact, and in particular, its carbon footprint. We developed a dynamic stock model to estimate future final demand for steel and the available scrap for 10 world regions. Based on evidence from developed countries, we assumed that per capita in-use stocks will saturate eventually. We determined the response of the entire steel cycle to stock saturation, in particular the future split between primary and secondary steel production. During the 21st century, steel demand may peak in the developed world, China, the Middle East, Latin America, and India. As China completes its industrialization, global primary steel production may peak between 2020 and 2030 and decline thereafter. We developed a capacity model to show how extensive trade of finished steel could prolong the lifetime of the Chinese steelmaking assets. Secondary steel production will more than double by 2050, and it may surpass primary production between 2050 and 2060: the late 21st century can become the steel scrap age.

The roles of energy and material efficiency in meeting steel industry CO2 targets.

Identifying strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from steel production requires a comprehensive model of the sector but previous work has either failed to consider the whole supply chain or considered only a subset of possible abatement options. In this work, a global mass flow analysis is combined with process emissions intensities to allow forecasts of future steel sector emissions under all abatement options. Scenario analysis shows that global capacity for primary steel production is already near to a peak and that if sectoral emissions are to be reduced by 50% by 2050, the last required blast furnace will be built by 2020. Emissions reduction targets cannot be met by energy and emissions efficiency alone, but deploying material efficiency provides sufficient extra abatement potential.

The incentives for supply chain collaboration to improve material efficiency in the use of steel: An analysis using input output techniques

In the face of increasing demand and limited emission reduction opportunities, the steel industry will have to look beyond its process emissions to bear its share of emission reduction targets. One option is to improve material efficiency - reducing the amount of metal required to meet services. In this context, the purpose of this paper is to explore why opportunities to improve material efficiency through upstream measures such as yield improvement and lightweighting might remain underexploited by industry. Established input-output techniques are applied to the GTAP 7 multi-regional input-output model to quantify the incentives for companies in key steel-using sectors (such as property developers and automotive companies) to seek opportunities to improve material efficiency in their upstream supply chains under different short-run carbon price scenarios. Because of the underlying assumptions, the incentives are interpreted as overestimates. The principal result of the paper is that these generous estimates of the incentives for material efficiency caused by a carbon price are offset by the disincentives to material efficiency caused by labour taxes. Reliance on a carbon price alone to deliver material efficiency would therefore be misguided and additional policy interventions to support material efficiency should be considered. © 2013 Elsevier B.V.

The mechanism of high temperature aqueous corrosion of steel

A new model is presented which describes the growth of the duplex layers of Fe3O4 on mild steel in high temperature, deoxygenated, neutral or alkaline aqueous solutions. It is shown that the layers grow by the ingress of water along oxide micropores to the metal-oxide interface and by the rate-limiting outward diffusion of Fe ions along oxide grain boundaries. The new model accounts for the observed temperature-dependence and pH-dependence of the corrosion, the morphology of inner and outer layer crystallites, the segregation of alloying elements, and the location of hydrogen evolution. The model can also be generalized to other steels and alloys. © 1989.

Seafloor interaction with steel catenary risers

This paper describes the key features of a seafloor-riser interaction model. The soil is represented in terms of non-linear load-deflection (P- y) relationships, which are also able to account for soil stiffness degradation due to cyclic loading. The analytical framework considers the riser-seafloor interaction problem in terms of a pipe resting on a bed of springs, and requires the iterative solution of a fourth-order ordinary differential equation. A series of simulations is used to illustrate the capabilities of the model. Thanks to the non-linear soil springs with stiffness degradation it is possible to simulate the trench formation process and estimate moments in a riser. Copyright © 2008 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers (ISOPE).

Interaction model for steel compliant riser on soft seabed

The use of catenary steel-compliant-riser (SCR) systems has increased as hydrocarbon production has moved progressively farther offshore and into deeper waters. The issue of fatigue damage caused by cyclic interaction of a riser with the seabed has gained prominence with the widespread use of SCRs and with the lengthening of the spans. The problem involves a number of complex factors, including trench configuration, nonlinear soil stiffness, breakaway of the riser from the seafloor, and degradation of soil resistance during cyclic loading. This paper presents a soilinteraction model capable of modeling these complexities, using input parameters that can be obtained with reasonable expenditure. Model simulations for typical offshore soft-soil conditions indicate that the model is capable of realistic predictions of cyclic bending moments. The degradation of soil resistance has a major effect on cyclic bending moments, particularly when uplift motions at the riser touchdown point (TDP) are large. © 2008 Society of Petroleum Engineers.

Short-term cytotoxic and inflammatory responses of human monocytes to stainless steel fibre networks

The aim of the current work was to examine the human monocyte response to 444 ferritic stainless steel fibre networks. 316L austenitic fibre networks, of the same fibre volume fraction, were used as control surfaces. Fluorescence and scanning electron microscopies suggest that the cells exhibited a good degree of attachment and penetration throughout both networks. Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) and TNF-α releases were used as indicators of cytotoxicity and inflammatory responses respectively. LDH release indicated similar levels of monocyte viability when in contact with the 444 and 316L fibre networks. Both networks elicited a low level secretion of TNF-α, which was significantly lower than that of the positive control wells containing zymosan. Collectively, the results suggest that 444 ferritic and 316L austenitic networks induced similar cytotoxic and inflammatory responses from human monocytes. © 2012 Materials Research Society.

The role of damping in steel pan manufacture

Results are presented of systematic studies of vibration damping in steel of a type, and processed by a route, rel-evant to Caribbean steel pans. Damping is likely to be a significant factor in the variation of sound quality be-tween different pans. The main stages in pan manufac-ture are simulated in a controlled manner using sheet steel, cold-rolled to a prescribed level of thickness reduc-tion then annealed at a chosen temperature in a laboratory furnace. Small test strips were cut from the resulting material, and tested in free-free beam bending to deduce the Young’s modulus and its associated loss factor. It is shown that the steel type, the degree of cold working and the annealing temperature all have a significant influence on damping. Furthermore, for each individual specimen damping is found to decrease with rising frequency, ap-proximately following a power law. Comparison with samples cut from a real pan show that there are further influences from the pan’s geometrical details.