Externalities of Shipping in the Gulf of Finland until 2015

During the last few years, the discussion on the marginal social costs of transportation has been active. Applying the externalities as a tool to control transport would fulfil the polluter pays principle and simultaneously create a fair control method between the transport modes. This report presents the results of two calculation algorithms developed to estimate the marginal social costs based on the externalities of air pollution. The first algorithm calculates the future scenarios of sea transport traffic externalities until 2015 in the Gulf of Finland. The second algorithm calculates the externalities of Russian passenger car transit traffic via Finland by taking into account both sea and road transport. The algorithm estimates the ship-originated emissions of carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), sulphur oxides (SO_x), particulates (PM) and the externalities for each year from 2007 to 2015. The total NOx emissions in the Gulf of Finland from the six ship types were almost 75.7 kilotons (Table 5.2) in 2007. The ship types are: passenger (including cruisers and ROPAX vessels), tanker, general cargo, Ro-Ro, container and bulk vessels. Due to the increase of traffic, the estimation for NO_x emissions for 2015 is 112 kilotons. The NO_x emission estimation for the whole Baltic Sea shipping is 370 kilotons in 2006 (Stipa & al, 2007). The total marginal social costs due to ship-originated CO₂, NO_x, SO_x and PM emissions in the GOF were calculated to almost 175 million Euros in 2007. The costs will increase to nearly 214 million Euros in 2015 due to the traffic growth. The major part of the externalities is due to CO₂ emissions. If we neglect the CO2 emissions by extracting the CO₂ externalities from the results, we get the total externalities of 57 million Euros in 2007. After eight years (2015), the externalities would be 28 % lower, 41 million Euros (Table 8.1). This is the result of the sulphur emissions reducing regulation of marine fuels. The majority of the new car transit goes through Finland to Russia due to the lack of port capacity in Russia. The amount of cars was 339 620 vehicles (Statistics of Finnish Customs 2008) in 2005. The externalities are calculated for the transportation of passenger vehicles as follows: by ship to a Finnish port and, after that, by trucks to the Russian border checkpoint. The externalities are between 2 – 3 million Euros (year 2000 cost level) for each route. The ports included in the calculations are Hamina, Hanko, Kotka and Turku. With the Euro-3 standard trucks, the port of Hanko would be the best choice to transport the vehicles. This is because of lower emissions by new trucks and the saved transport distance of a ship. If the trucks are more polluting Euro 1 level trucks, the port of Kotka would be the best choice. This indicates that the truck emissions have a considerable effect on the externalities and that the transportation of light cargo, such as passenger cars by ship, produces considerably high emission externalities. The emission externalities approach offers a new insight for valuing the multiple traffic modes. However, the calculation of the marginal social costs based on the air emission externalities should not be regarded as a ready-made calculation system. The system is clearly in the need of some improvement but it can already be considered as a potential tool for political decision making.

Transport, trafik och post

Samlingen med signum HB Xg finns vid huvudbiblioteket och innehåller litteratur om olika transport- och trafikmedel, om sjöfart, om posttrafik etc. till och med år 1999. Vid Sjöhistoriska institutet, Forum Marinum, finns litteratur om sjöfart, se http://www.abo.fi/instut/sjohistoriska/ Litteratur om kommunikationer har ingått i bokdonationer såväl från hemlandet som från Sverige. Friexemplar som erhållits från år 1919 samt inköp har kompletterat samlingen. Litteraturen i samlingen söks i Alma med sökfunktionen Signum och söktermen HB Xg. En del litteratur tryckt före 1980 söks manuellt i den systematiska katalogen, men retroaktiv inmatning i Alma av litteratur tryckt mellan 1830 och 1979 pågår. Från och med år 2000 ingår litteraturen vid huvudbiblioteket om transport, trafik och post i en numerus currens-samling.

Sevillian transport jars in early colonial America: the case of Santa María La Antigua del Darién (Colombia)

Within the scope of the TECNOLONIAL (HAR2008-02834/HIST) project, an archaeologi- cal and archaeometric research is being conduct- ed in order to clarify and systematize transport jars production in the Iberian peninsula and their distribution abroad, especially to the Americas, from the 15th to the 17th century. The production centre of Seville, in the Crown of Castile, produced large glazed and unglazed transport jars, called botijas, which were mainly devoted to the Atlantic trade network. The pres- ent study accounts for the first results obtained from an initial sample of 34 transport jars dated around the 15th-16th centuries from the produc- tion centre of Seville and the reception site of Santa María de la Antigua del Darién (gulf of Urabá, Colombia). This latter site is especially significant since it was the first Spanish founda- tion (1510) in continental America that obtained the title of town, and was the seat for the Governor of the new region called Castilla de Oro, as well as for the first diocese. All individuals were analyzed by means of x-ray fluorescence and diffraction analyses and then compared with the majolica production database from Seville. The results enabled us to define the first refer- ence groups for such modern transport jars, and to get a first insight into the jars coming to the Americas in the early 16th century whose prove- nance can be linked to Seville, but not Triana.

Use of Biomass Gasification for Transport

This thesis represents an overview of biomass gasification technology together with some practical aspects of this technology application for transport in Finland. The main aim of this work is an assessment whether this technology is perspective in the nearest future for the wide use on transport or not. The first part of the thesis is a kind of survey of the previous works and materials con-cerning the usage of biomass gasification for transport. The second part concentrates more on the practical moments of its use for mobile applications in Finland (taxation, emissions, etc.).

Enhancing the efficiency of freight transport by using simulation

The role of transport in the economy is twofold. As a sector of economic activity it contributes to a share of national income. On the other hand, improvements in transport infrastructure create room for accelerated economic growth. As a means to support railways as a safe and environmentally friendly transportation mode, the EU legislation has required the opening of domestic railway freight for competition from beginning of year 2007. The importance of railways as a mode of transport has been great in Finland, as a larger share of freight has been carried on rails than in Europe on average. In this thesis it is claimed that the efficiency of goods transport can be enhanced by service specific investments. Furthermore, it is stressed that simulation can and should be used to evaluate the cost-efficiency of transport systems on operational level, as well as to assess transportation infrastructure investments. In all the studied cases notable efficiency improvements were found. For example in distribution, home delivery of groceries can be almost twice as cost efficient as the current practice of visiting the store. The majority of the cases concentrated on railway freight. In timber transportation, the item with the largest annual transport volume in domestic railway freight in Finland, the transportation cost could be reduced most substantially. Also in international timber procurement, the utilization of railway wagons could be improved by combining complementary flows. The efficiency improvements also have positive environmental effects; a large part of road transit could be moved to rails annually. If impacts of freight transport are included in cost-benefit analysis of railway investments, up to 50 % increase in the net benefits of the evaluated alternatives can be experienced, avoiding a possible inbuilt bias in the assessment framework, and thus increasing the efficiency of national investments in transportation infrastructure. Transportation systems are a typical example of complex real world systems that cannot be analysed realistically by analytical methods, whereas simulation allows inclusion of dynamics and the level of detail required. Regarding simulation as a viable tool for assessing the efficiency of transportation systems finds support also in the international survey conducted for railway freight operators; operators use operations research methods widely for planning purposes, while simulation is applied only by the larger operators.

Magnetic and transport properties of InGaAs quantum wells with Mn

In the present work structural, magnetic and transport properties of InGaAs quantum wells (QW) prepared by MBE with an remote Mn layer are investigated. By means of high-resolution X-ray diffractometry the structure of the samples is analyzed. It is shown that Mn ions penetrate into the QW. Influence of the thickness of GaAs spacer and annealing at 286 ºС on the properties of the system is shown. It is shown that annealing of the samples led to Mn activation and narrowing of the Mn layer. Substantial role of 2D holes in ferromagnetic ordering in Mn layer is shown. Evidence for that is observation of maximum at 25 – 55 K on the resistivity temperature dependence. Position of maximum, which is used for quantitative assessment of the Curie temperature, correlates with calculations of the Curie temperature for structures with indirect interaction via 2D holes’ channel. Dependence of the Curie temperature on the spacer thickness shows, that creation of applicable spintronic devices needs high-precision equipment to manufacture extra fine structures. The magnetotransport measurements show that charge carrier mobility is very low. This leads to deficiency of the anomalous Hall effect. At the same time, magnetic field dependences of the magnetization at different temperatures demonstrate that systems are ferromagnetically ordered. These facts, most probably, give evidence of presence of the ferromagnetic MnAs clusters.

Effect of long-range Coulomb interaction on shot-noise suppression in ballistic transport

We present a microscopic analysis of shot-noise suppression due to long-range Coulomb interaction in semiconductor devices under ballistic transport conditions. An ensemble Monte Carlo simulator self-consistently coupled with a Poisson solver is used for the calculations. A wide range of injection-rate densities leading to different degrees of suppression is investigated. A sharp tendency of noise suppression at increasing injection densities is found to scale with a dimensionless Debye length related to the importance of space-charge effects in the structure.

Energy intensity in road freight transport of heavy goods vehicles in Spain

This paper examines the factors that have influenced the energy intensity of the Spanish road freight transport of heavy goods vehicles over the period 1996–2012. This article aims to contribute to a better understanding of the factors behind the energy intensity change of road freight and also to inform the design of measures to improve energy efficiency in road freight transport. The paper uses both annual single-period and chained multi-period multiplicative LMDI-II decomposition analysis. The results suggest that the decrease in the energy intensity of Spanish road freight in the period is explained by the change in the real energy intensity index (lower energy consumption per tonne-kilometre transported), which is partially offset by the behaviour of the structural index (greater share in freight transport of those commodities the transportation of which is more energy intensive). The change in energy intensity is analysed in more depth by quantifying the contribution of each commodity through the attribution of changes in Divisia indices.

Safety Culture and Maritime Personnel’s Safety Attitudes: Interview Report

”METKU –projektissa” (Merenkulun turvallisuuskulttuurin kehittäminen) tutkitaan kansainvälisen turvallisuusjohtamiskoodin (ISM-koodin) vaikutuksia merenkulun turvallisuuteen ja etsitään kehittämiskohteita merenkulun turvallisuusjohtamisen parantamiseksi. Tämä haastatteluraportti on laadittu METKU –projektin yhteistyössä työpakettien 1 ja 2 kesken. Tähän raporttiin haastateltiin yhteensä 94 merenkulun ammattilaista. Suurimman osan haastateltavista muodostivat aktiiviset merenkulkijat: miehistön jäsenet, päällystö ja alusten päälliköt. Haastattelukohteena oli seitsemän suomalaista varustamoa. Haastatteluissa kerättiin merenkulkijoiden kokemuksia ja mielipiteitä ISM-koodin vaikutuksesta heidän käytännön työhönsä. Suomalaiset merenkulkijat uskovat, että tänä päivänä varustamoiden johtajat ovat hyvin sitoutuneita turvallisuuteen. Myös miehistön asenteet turvallisuuteen ovat ISM-koodin käytön myötä parantuneet. Haasteltavien yhteinen huoli kohdistui jatkuvan parantamisen toimivuuteen. Kaikki haastatellut ryhmät olivat samaa mieltä siitä, että poikkeamien raportointi ei ISMkoodin vaatimuksesta huolimatta toimi kunnolla. ISM-koodin käyttöön otosta on ollut merenkululle selkeää hyötyä. Haastateltavat esittivät hyötyinä parantuneen yhteistyön ja tiedonkulun alusten ja varustamon välillä sekä sen, että merenkulun toiminnan laatu on parantunut. Monet haastateltavat korostivat, että ISM-koodin selkeät turvallisuusvastuut yhtiölle on ollut merkittävä hyöty. Itse ISM-koodiin merenkulkijoilla ei ollut juurikaan huomauttamista. Sen sijaan turvallisuusjohtamisen käytännön toteutuksessa nähtiin parantamisen varaa. ISMkoodin aiheuttamina ongelmina mainittiin mm. lisääntynyt byrokratia ja liian monimutkaiset ja yksityiskohtaiset turvallisuuskäsikirjat. Monet haastateltavat toivovat, että ISM-koodin käytännön soveltamiseen laadittaisiin ohjeita.

Magnetic and transport properties of II-V diluted magnetic semiconductors doped with manganese and nickel

This thesis is devoted to investigations of three typical representatives of the II-V diluted magnetic semiconductors, Zn1-xMnxAs2, (Zn1-xMnx)3As2 and p-CdSb:Ni. When this work started the family of the II-V semiconductors was presented by only the compounds belonging to the subgroup II3-V2, as (Zn1-xMnx)3As2, whereas the rest of the materials mentioned above were not investigated at all. Pronounced low-field magnetic irreversibility, accompanied with a ferromagnetic transition, are observed in Zn1-xMnxAs2 and (Zn1-xMnx)3As2 near 300 K. These features give evidence for presence of MnAs nanosize magnetic clusters, responsible for frustrated ground magnetic state. In addition, (Zn1-xMnx)3As2 demonstrates large paramagnetic response due to considerable amount of single Mn ions and small antiferromagnetic clusters. Similar paramagnetic system existing in Zn1-xMnxAs2 is much weaker. Distinct low-field magnetic irreversibility, accompanied with a rapid saturation of the magnetization with increasing magnetic field, is observed near the room temperature in p- CdSb:Ni, as well. Such behavior is connected to the frustrated magnetic state, determined by Ni-rich magnetic Ni1-xSbx nanoclusters. Their large non-sphericity and preferable orientations are responsible for strong anisotropy of the coercivity and saturation magnetization of p- CdSb:Ni. Parameters of the Ni1-xSbx nanoclusters are estimated. Low-temperature resistivity of p-CdSb:Ni is governed by a hopping mechanism of charge transfer. The variable-range hopping conductivity, observed in zero magnetic field, demonstrates a tendency of transformation into the nearest-neighbor hopping conductivity in non-zero magnetic filed. The Hall effect in p-CdSb:Ni exhibits presence of a positive normal and a negative anomalous contributions to the Hall resistivity. The normal Hall coefficient is governed mainly by holes activated into the valence band, whereas the anomalous Hall effect, attributable to the Ni1-xSbx nanoclusters with ferromagnetically ordered internal spins, exhibits a low-temperature power-law resistivity scaling.

Highly selective transport of mercury(II) ion through a bulk liquid membrane

In this work carrier-facilitated transport of mercury(II) against its concentration gradient from aqueous 0.04 M hydrochloric acid solution across a liquid membrane containing isopropyl 2-[(isopropoxycarbothiolyl)disulfanyl]ethane thioate (IIDE) as the mobile carrier in chloroform has been investigated. Sodium thiocyanate solution (1.6 M) was the most efficient receiving phase agent among several aqueous reagents tested. Various parameters such as investigated. Under optimum conditions the transport of Hg(II) across the liquid membrane is more than 97% after 2.5 h. The carrier, IIDE, selectively and efficiently could able to transport Hg (II) ions in the presence of other associated metal ions in binary systems.

Design of Installation for Transport Measurements

In the present work the aim was to prepare an automatic installation for studies of galvanomagnetic effects in solids and to test it by calibration measurements. As a result required automatic installation was created in this work and test measurements were performed. Created setup automatically provides measurements of the magnetoresistance of the Hall effect with an accuracy of ± 2 µV in the temperature range 2 – 300 K and steady magnetic fields up to 6 T. The test measurements of the glassy carbon samples showed that the setup is reliable, has high sensitivity and is easy to use. The results obtained in the research process are pioneer and will be separately analyzed.

A generalized 1D particle transport method for convection diffusion reaction model

This work is devoted to the development of numerical method to deal with convection diffusion dominated problem with reaction term, non - stiff chemical reaction and stiff chemical reaction. The technique is based on the unifying Eulerian - Lagrangian schemes (particle transport method) under the framework of operator splitting method. In the computational domain, the particle set is assigned to solve the convection reaction subproblem along the characteristic curves created by convective velocity. At each time step, convection, diffusion and reaction terms are solved separately by assuming that, each phenomenon occurs separately in a sequential fashion. Moreover, adaptivities and projection techniques are used to add particles in the regions of high gradients (steep fronts) and discontinuities and transfer a solution from particle set onto grid point respectively. The numerical results show that, the particle transport method has improved the solutions of CDR problems. Nevertheless, the method is time consumer when compared with other classical technique e.g., method of lines. Apart from this advantage, the particle transport method can be used to simulate problems that involve movingsteep/smooth fronts such as separation of two or more elements in the system.

Utilization of Incident Reporting in The Finnish Maritime Industry

Marine traffic is expected to increase rapidly in the future, both in the Baltic Sea and in the Gulf of Finland. As the number of vessels in the area increases, so does the risk of serious marine accidents. To help prevent such accidents in the future, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has put forth the International Safety Management Code (the ISM Code), which aims to improve the safety of the vessels. The second work package of the Development of maritime safety culture (METKU) project investigates the effects of the ISM Code and potential areas of improvement in maritime safety. The first phase in the work package used a literature review to determine how maritime safety culture could be improved. Continuous improvement, management commitment and personnel empowerment and motivation were found to be essential. In the second phase, shipping companies and administrators were interviewed. It was discovered that especially incident reporting based on continuous improvement was felt to be lacking. This third phase aims to take a closer look at incident reporting and suggest improvements based on the findings. Both the IMO and national legislation encourage shipping companies in incident reporting, and on the national level a shared incident reporting system (ForeSea) is being pushed forward. The objective of this research project was to find out the IMO’s attitude towards incident reporting, to establish a theoretical framework of reference in incident reporting, and to observe how reporting is actually being employed on the seas. Existing incident reporting systems were also researched. The study was carried out using a literature review and the results previously gathered in interviews. The results of phase two were elaborated further for themes relating to incident reporting. According to the findings of this research, the theoretical background of incident reporting dates back to the early 20th century. Although some theories are widely accepted, some have also received criticism. The lack of a concise, shared terminology poses major difficulties in maritime incident reporting and in determining its efficiency. A central finding is the fact that existing incident reporting focuses mostly on information flow away from the ship, whereas the backward information flow is much less planned and monitored. In incident reporting, both nationally and internationally, stakeholders are plenty. The information produced by these parties is scattered, however, and thus not very usable. Based on this research, the centralizing of this information should be made a priority. Traditionally, the success of incident reporting has been determined statistically, from the number of reported incidents. Yet existing reporting systems have not been designed with such statistical analysis in mind, so different methodologies might yield a more comprehensive view. The previous findings of seafarers and management (including shipping companies and administration) having differing views on safety work and safety management were backed up by the results of this study. Seafarers find seamanship and storytelling important, while management wants a more systematic and broad approach on safety matters. The research project was carried out by the Centre for Maritime Studies of the University of Turku, in the Kotka unit (Maritime Logistics Research), with coordination by the Kotka Maritime Research Centre. The major financiers of the project were the European Union and the city of Kotka. The financing authority was the Regional Council of Päijät-Häme. Partners in the project were the shipping companies Finnlines Oyj, Kristina Cruises Oy, Meriaura Oy and VG-Shipping Oy, and the ports of Helsinki, Kotka and Hamina. The partners provided both funding for the project and information for the research.