Aβ(1-42) induced metabolic effects in a stem cell derived neuron and astrocyte network.

Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia currently affecting more than 35 million people worldwide. Hypometabolism is a major feature of AD and appears decades before cognitive decline and pathological lesions. This has a detrimental impact on the brain which has a high energy demand. Current models of AD fail to mimic all the features of the disease, which has an impact on the development of new therapies. Human stem cell derived models of the brain have attracted a lot of attention in recent years as a tool to study neurodegenerative diseases. In this thesis, neurons and astrocytes derived from the human embryonal carcinoma cell line (NT2/D1) were utilised to determine the metabolic coupling between neurons and astrocytes with regards to responses to hypoglycaemia, neuromodulators and increase in neuronal activity. This model was then used to investigate the effects of Aß(1-42) on the metabolism of these NT2-derived co-cultures as well as pure astrocytes. Additionally primary cortical mixed neuronal and glial cultures were utilised to compare this model to a widely accepted in vitro model used in Alzheimer’s disease research. Co-cultures were found to respond to Aß(1-42) in similar way to human and in vivo models. Hypometabolism was characterised by changes in glucose metabolism, as well as lactate, pyruvate and glycogen. This led to a significant decrease in ATP and the ratio of NAD+/NADH. These results together with an increase in calcium oscillations and a decrease in GSH/GSSG ratio, suggests Aß-induces metabolic and oxidative stress. This situation could have detrimental effects in the brain which has a high energy demand, especially in terms of memory formation and antioxidant capacity.

Human leukemia inhibitory factor upregulates LDL receptors on liver cells and decreases serum cholesterol in the cholesterol-fed rabbit

In a previous study, we found that the cytokine (human) leukemia inhibitory factor (hLIF) significantly reduced plasma cholesterol levels and the accumulation of lipid in aortic tissues of cholesterol-fed rabbits after 4 weeks of treatment. The mechanisms by which this occurs were investigated in the present study. This involved examining the effect of hLIF on (1) the level of plasma cholesterol at different times throughout the 4-week treatment and diet period; (2) smooth muscle cell (SMC) and macrophage-derived foam cell formation in vitro; and (3) LDL receptor expression and uptake in the human hepatoma cell line HepG2. At time zero, an osmotic minipump (2-mL capacity; infusion rate, 2.5 mu L/h; 28 days) containing either hLIF (30 mu g.kg(-1).d(-1)) or saline was inserted into the peritoneal cavity of New Zealand White rabbits (N=24). Rabbits were divided into four groups of six animals each. Group 1 received a normal diet/saline; group 2, a normal diet/hLIF; group 3, a 1% cholesterol diet/saline; and group 4, a 1% cholesterol diet/hLIF. hLIF had no effect on the plasma lipids or artery wall of group 2 rabbits (normal diet). However, in group 4 rabbits, plasma cholesterol levels and the percent surface area of thoracic aorta covered by fatty streaks was decreased by approximate to 30% and 80%, respectively, throughout all stages of the 4-week treatment period. In vitro, hLIF failed to prevent lipoprotein uptake by either SMCs or macrophages (foam cell formation) when the cells were exposed to P-VLDL for 24 hours. In contrast, hLIF (100 ng/mL) added to cultured human hepatoma HepG2 cells induced a twofold or threefold increase in intracellular lipid accumulation in the medium containing 10% lipoprotein-deficient serum or 10% fetal calf serum, respectively. This was accompanied by a significant non-dose-dependent increase in LDL receptor expression in hLIF-treated HepG2 cells incubated with LDL (20 mu g/mL) when compared with controls (P

Early and late effects of bone marrow-derived mononuclear cell therapy on lung and distal organs in experimental sepsis

We tested the hypothesis that bone marrow-derived mononuclear cells (BMDMCs) at an early phase of cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis may have lasting effects on: (1) lung mechanics and histology, (2) the structural remodelling of lung parenchyma, (3) lung, kidney, and liver cell apoptosis, and (4) pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines and growth factors. At day 1, BMDMC significantly reduced mortality, as well as caspase-3, interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1 beta vascular endothelial growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, hepatocyte growth factor, and transforming growth factor-beta, but increased IL-10 mRNA expression in lung tissue in septic mice contributing to endothelium and epithelium alveolar repair and improvement of lung mechanics. BMDMC also prevented the increase of apoptotic cells in lung, liver, and kidney. At day 7, these early functional and morphological effects were preserved or further improved. In conclusion, in the present model of sepsis, the beneficial effects of early administration of BMDMCs on lung and distal organs were preserved, possibly by paracrine mechanisms. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Treatment With a Growth Factor-Protein Mixture Inhibits Formation of Mineralized Nodules in Osteogenic Cell Cultures Grown on Titanium

Despite wide clinical application, the efficacy of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) for repairing bone defects and enhancing osseointegration of metal implants is still subject of debate. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a well-defined PRP-like mixture containing platelet-derived growth factor-BB, transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta 1, TGF-beta 2, albumin, fibronectin, and thrombospondin [growth factors (GFs) + proteins] on the development of the osteogenic phenotype on titanium (Ti) in vitro. Human alveolar bone-derived osteoblastic cells were subcultured on Ti discs and exposed during the first 7 days to osteogenic medium supplemented with GFs + proteins and to osteogenic medium alone thereafter up to 14 days. Control cultures were exposed to only osteogenic medium. Dose-response experiments were carried out using rat primary calvarial cells exposed to GFs + proteins and 1:10 or 1:100 dilutions of the mixture. Treated human-derived cell cultures exhibited a significantly higher number of cycling cells at days 1 and 4 and of total cells at days 4 and 7, significantly reduced alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity at days 4, 7, and 10, and no Alizarin red-stained areas (calcium deposits) at day 14, indicating an impairment in osteoblast differentiation. Although the 1:10 and 1:100 dilutions of the mixture restored the proliferative activity of rat-derived osteogenic cells to control levels and promoted a significant increase in ALP activity at day 10 compared with GFs + proteins, mineralized nodule formation was only observed with the 1:100 dilution (similar to 50% of the control). These results showed that a PRP-like protein mixture inhibits development of the osteogenic phenotype in both human and rat osteoblastic cell cultures grown on Ti. (J Histochem Cytochem 57:265-276, 2009)

Suppression of keratinocyte growth and differentiation by transforming growth factor beta 1 involves multiple signaling pathways

Transforming growth factor beta1 treatment of keratinocytes results in a suppression of differentiation, an induction of extracellular matrix production, and a suppression of growth. In this study we utilized markers specific for each of these functions to explore the signaling pathways involved in mediating these transforming-growth-factor-beta1-induced activities. In the first instance, we found that the induction of extracellular matrix production (characterized by 3TP-Lux reporter activity) was induced in both keratinocytes and a keratinocyte-derived carcinoma cell line, SCC25, in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, transforming growth factor beta1 also suppressed the differentiation-specific marker gene, transglutaminase type 1, in both keratinocytes and SCC25 cells. In contrast, transforming growth factor beta1 inhibited proliferation of keratinocytes but did not cause growth inhibition in the SCC25 cells. Transforming-growth-factor-beta1-induced growth inhibition of keratinocytes was characterized by decreases in DNA synthesis, accumulation of hypophosphorylated Rb, and the inhibition of the E2F:Rb-responsive promoter, cdc2, and an induction of the p21 promoter. When the negative regulator of transforming growth factor beta1 signaling, SMAD7, was overexpressed in keratinocytes it could prevent transforming-growth-factor-beta1-induced activation of the 3TP-Lux and the p21 promoter. SMAD7 could also prevent the suppression of the transglutaminase type 1 by transforming growth factor beta1 but it could not inhibit the repression of the cdc2 promoter. These data indicate that the induction of 3TP-Lux and p21 and the suppression of transglutaminase type 1 are mediated by a different proximate signaling pathway to that regulating the suppression of the cdc2 gene. Combined, these data indicate that the regulation of transforming growth factor beta1 actions are complex and involve multiple signaling pathways.

Cell-specific regulation of acetylcholinesterase expression under inflammatory conditions

Acetylcholine (ACh) has been shown to exert an anti-inflammatory function by down-modulating the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Its availability can be regulated at different levels, namely at its synthesis and degradation steps. Accordingly, the expression of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme responsible for ACh hydrolysis, has been observed to be modulated in inflammation. To further address the mechanisms underlying this effect, we aimed here at characterizing AChE expression in distinct cellular types pivotal to the inflammatory response. This study was performed in the human acute leukaemia monocytyc cell line, THP-1, in human monocyte-derived primary macrophages and in human umbilical cord vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). In order to subject these cells to inflammatory conditions, THP-1 and macrophage were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from E.coli and HUVEC were stimulated with the tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α). Our results showed that although AChE expression was generally up-regulated at the mRNA level under inflammatory conditions, distinct AChE protein expression profiles were aurprisingly observed among the distinct cellular types studied. Altogether, these results argue for the existence of cell specific mechanisms that regulate the expression of acetylcholinesterase in inflammation.

Motilidad Orientada de Células Neurales: La comunicación celular a distancia. Oriented neural cell motility: Cell comunication at a distance.

La motilidad celular orientada (o mecanismo quimiotáctico de orientación), es una respuesta celular a señales moleculares de su micro-ambiente necesaria para modular la distribución celular en sitios específicos y con elevada precisión. Nuestra hipótesis establece que la migración orientada de células neurales es regulada por gradientes de concentración de moléculas solubles liberadas por sus regiones "blanco". Este proyecto es continuación del estudio de la quimiotaxis de células de cresta neural (CCN) y de neuronas ventriculares (NV) inducida respectivamente por factores difusibles de la región del futuro ganglio ciliar y del bulbo olfatorio.En el sistema de CCN, hemos caracterizado como moléculas quimiotácticas a la quimioquina Stromal Cell-Derived Factor-1, y los factores tróficos Stem Cell Factor y Neurotrophic Factor-3, habiendo determinado la expresión de sus respectivos receptores CXCR4, TrkC y p75 en la población de CCN mesencefálicas de ambrión de pollo. Actualmente, estamos desarrollando experimentos con el Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor y factores de la familia Bone Morphogenetic Proteins. Además de la estrategia experimental in vitro, hemos determinado en el embrión entero la expresión de las moléculas quimioatractantes mediante hibridación in situ del ARNm y la presencia de las respectivas proteínas mediante inmunocitoquímica. En el sistema de NV, estamos analizando la motilidad celular en relación con moléculas liberadas por el bulbo olfatorio. En los dos sistemas biológicos, estamos analizando elementos de la transducción de señales y cambios en el citoesqueleto, en ambos casos asociados con la respuesta temprana en la orientación quimiotáctica de la célula. Asimismo, en ambos sistemas biológicos, evaluamos los efectos del etanol sobre la migración y distribución celular, en condiciones equivalentes a las que inducen el Sindrome Fetal Alcohólico en mamíferos.En base a resultados ya obtenidos en experimentos in vitro, en la presente etapa intentaremos su caracterización in vivo mediante el bloqueo funcional de las moléculas quimiotácticas (y/o sus receptores) sobre embriones enteros, mediante silenciamiento con ARNsi (o morfolinos específicos) mediante electroporación, y posterior determinación de la distribución celular mediante marcadores específicos anti-CCN (o lipofílicos de tipo DiI).Los resultados permitirán mejorar el conocimiento del mecanismo de la migración celular orientada y aportar al diseño de recursos diagnósticos, terapéuticos o de control de anomalías embrionarias o patologías tumorales por mala distribución celular como las Neurocristopatías, o inducidas por tóxicos exógenos como el Sindrome Fetal Alcohólico.

Drosophila Myc interacts with host cell factor (dHCF) to activate transcription and control growth.

The Myc proto-oncoproteins are transcription factors that recognize numerous target genes through hexameric DNA sequences called E-boxes. The mechanism by which they then activate the expression of these targets is still under debate. Here, we use an RNAi screen in Drosophila S2 cells to identify Drosophila host cell factor (dHCF) as a novel co-factor for Myc that is functionally required for the activation of a Myc-dependent reporter construct. dHCF is also essential for the full activation of endogenous Myc target genes in S2 cells, and for the ability of Myc to promote growth in vivo. Myc and dHCF physically interact, and they colocalize on common target genes. Furthermore, down-regulation of dHCF-associated histone acetyltransferase and histone methyltransferase complexes in vivo interferes with the Myc biological activities. We therefore propose that dHCF recruits such chromatin-modifying complexes and thereby contributes to the expression of Myc targets and hence to the execution of Myc biological activities.

Conditioned polarized Caco-2 cell monolayers allow to discriminate for the ability of gut-derived microorganisms to modulate permeability and antigen-induced basophil degranulation.

BACKGROUND: Food allergy is a common allergic disorder--especially in early childhood. The avoidance of the allergenic food is the only available method to prevent further reactions in sensitized patients. A better understanding of the immunologic mechanisms involved in this reaction would help to develop therapeutic approaches applicable to the prevention of food allergy. OBJECTIVE: To establish a multi-cell in vitro model of sensitized intestinal epithelium that mimics the intestinal epithelial barrier to study the capacity of probiotic microorganisms to modulate permeability, translocation and immunoreactivity of ovalbumin (OVA) used as a model antigen. METHODS: Polarized Caco-2 cell monolayers were conditioned by basolateral basophils and used to examine apical to basolateral transport of OVA by ELISA. Activation of basophils with translocated OVA was measured by beta-hexosaminidase release assay. This experimental setting was used to assess how microorganisms added apically affected these parameters. Basolateral secretion of cytokine/chemokines by polarized Caco-2 cell monolayers was analysed by ELISA. RESULTS: Basophils loaded with OVA-specific IgE responded to OVA in a dose-dependent manner. OVA transported across polarized Caco-2 cell monolayers was found to trigger basolateral basophil activation. Microorganisms including lactobacilli and Escherichia coli increased transepithelial electrical resistance while promoting OVA passage capable to trigger basophil activation. Non-inflammatory levels of IL-8 and thymic stromal lymphopoietin were produced basolaterally by Caco-2 cells exposed to microorganisms. CONCLUSION: The complex model designed in here is adequate to learn about the consequence of the interaction between microorganisms and epithelial cells vis-a-vis the barrier function and antigen translocation, two parameters essential to mucosal homeostasis. It can further serve as a direct tool to search for microorganisms with anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory properties.

Role of the transcriptional factor C/EBPbeta in free fatty acid-elicited beta-cell failure.

Fatty acids can favour the development of Type 2 diabetes by reducing insulin secretion and inducing apoptosis of pancreatic beta-cells. Here, we show that sustained exposure of the beta-cell line MIN6 or of isolated pancreatic islets to the most abundant circulating fatty acid palmitate increases the level of C/EBPbeta, an insulin transcriptional repressor. In contrast, two unsaturated fatty acids, oleate and linoleate were without effect. The induction of C/EBPbeta elicited by palmitate was prevented by inhibiting the ERK1/2 MAP kinase pathway or by reducing mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation with an inhibitor of Carnitine Palmitoyl Transferase-1. Overexpression of C/EBPbeta mimicked the detrimental effects of palmitate and resulted in a drastic reduction in insulin promoter activity, impairment in the capacity to respond to secretory stimuli and an increase in apoptosis. Our data suggest a potential involvement of C/EBPbeta as mediator of the deleterious effects of unsaturated free fatty acids on beta-cell function.

Critical role of the transcriptional repressor neuron-restrictive silencer factor in the specific control of connexin36 in insulin-producing cell lines.

Connexin36 (Cx36) is specifically expressed in neurons and in pancreatic beta-cells. Cx36 functions as a critical regulator of insulin secretion and content in beta-cells. In order to identify the molecular mechanisms that control the beta-cell expression of Cx36, we initiated the characterization of the human 5' regulatory region of the CX36 gene. A 2043-bp fragment of the human CX36 promoter was identified from a human BAC library and fused to a luciferase reporter gene. This promoter region was sufficient to confer specific expression to the reporter gene in insulin-secreting cell lines. Within this 5' regulatory region, a putative neuron-restrictive silencer element conserved between rodent and human species was recognized and binds the neuron-restrictive silencing factor (NRSF/REST). This factor is not expressed in insulin-secreting cells and neurons; it functions as a potent repressor through the recruitment of histone deacetylase to the promoter of neuronal genes. The NRSF-mediated repression of Cx36 in HeLa cells was abolished by trichostatin A, confirming the functional importance of histone deacetylase activity. Ectopic expression, by viral gene transfer, of NRSF/REST in different insulin-secreting beta-cell lines induced a marked reduction in Cx36 mRNA and protein content. Moreover, mutations in the Cx36 neuron-restrictive silencer element relieved the low transcriptional activity of the human CX36 promoter observed in HeLa cells and in INS-1 cells expressing NRSF/REST. The data showed that cx36 gene expression in insulin-producing beta-cell lines is strictly controlled by the transcriptional repressor NRSF/REST indicating that Cx36 participates to the neuronal phenotype of the pancreatic beta-cells.

APRIL, a new ligand of the tumor necrosis factor family, stimulates tumor cell growth.

Members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family induce pleiotropic biological responses, including cell growth, differentiation, and even death. Here we describe a novel member of the TNF family designated APRIL (for a proliferation-inducing ligand). Although transcripts of APRIL are of low abundance in normal tissues, high levels of mRNA are detected in transformed cell lines, and in human cancers of colon, thyroid, and lymphoid tissues in vivo. The addition of recombinant APRIL to various tumor cells stimulates their proliferation. Moreover, APRIL-transfected NIH-3T3 cells show an increased rate of tumor growth in nude mice compared with the parental cell line. These findings suggest that APRIL may be implicated in the regulation of tumor cell growth.

BAFF, a novel ligand of the tumor necrosis factor family, stimulates B cell growth.

Members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family induce pleiotropic biological responses, including cell growth, differentiation, and even death. Here we describe a novel member of the TNF family, designated BAFF (for B cell activating factor belonging to the TNF family), which is expressed by T cells and dendritic cells. Human BAFF was mapped to chromosome 13q32-34. Membrane-bound BAFF was processed and secreted through the action of a protease whose specificity matches that of the furin family of proprotein convertases. The expression of BAFF receptor appeared to be restricted to B cells. Both membrane-bound and soluble BAFF induced proliferation of anti-immunoglobulin M-stimulated peripheral blood B lymphocytes. Moreover, increased amounts of immunoglobulins were found in supernatants of germinal center-like B cells costimulated with BAFF. These results suggest that BAFF plays an important role as costimulator of B cell proliferation and function.

SOURCE, FATE AND FUNCTION OF EARLY GLIAL CELLS EXPRESSING NKX2.1 IN MOUSE EMBRYONIC BRAINS

The brain tissue is made of neuronal and glial cells generated in the germinal layer bordering the ventricles. These cells divide, differentiate and migrate following specific pathways. The specification of GABAergic interneurons and glutamatergic neurons has been broadly studied but little is known about the origin, the fate and the function of early glial cells in the embryonic telencephalon. It has been commonly accepted since long that the glial cells and more particularly the astrocytes were generated after neurogenesis from the dorsal telencephalon. However, our work shows that, unlike what was previously thought, numerous glial cells (astroglia and polydendrocytes) are generated during neurogenesis in the early embryonic stages from E14.5 to E16.5, and originate from the ventral Nkx2.1-expressing precursors instead. NK2 homeobox 1 (Nkx2.1) is a member of the NK2 family of homeodomaincontaining transcription factors. The specification of the MGE precursors requires the expression of the Nkx2.1 homeobox gene. Moreover, Nkx2.1 is previously known to regulate the specification of GABAergic interneurons and early oligodendrocytes in the ventral telencephalon. Here, in my thesis work, I have discovered that, in addition, Nkx2.1 also regulates astroglia and polydendrocytes differentiation. The use of Nkx2.1 antibody and Nkx2.1 riboprobe have revealed the presence of numerous Nkx2.1-positive cells that express astroglial markers (like GLAST and GFAP) in the entire embryonic brain. Thus, to selectively fate map MGE-derived GABAergic interneurons and glia, we crossed Nkx2.1-Cre mice, Glast-Cre ERT+/- inducible mice and NG2-Cre mice with the Cre reporter Rosa26-lox-STOP-lox-YFP (Rosa26-YFP) mice. The precise origin of Nkx2.1-positive astroglia has been directly ascertained by combining glial immunostaining and focal electroporation of the pCAG-GS-EGFP plasmids into the subpallial domains of organotypic slices, as well as, by using in vitro neurosphere experiments and in utero electroporation of the pCAG-GS-tomato plasmid into the ventral pallium of E14.5 Nkx2.1-Cre+/Rosa-YFP+/- embryos. We have, thus, confirmed that the three germinal regions of the ventral telencephalon i.e. the MGE, the AEP/POA and the triangular septal nucleus are able to generate early astroglial cells. Moreover, immunohistochemistry for several astroglial cells and polydendrocyte markers, both in the Nkx2.1-/- and control embryos and in the neurospheres, has revealed a severe loss of both glial cell types in the Nkx2.1 mutants. We found that the loss of glia corresponded to a decrease of Nkx2.1-derived precursor division capacity and glial differentiation. There was a drastic decrease of BrdU+ dividing cells labeled for Nkx2.1 in the MGE*, the POA* and the septal nucleus* of Nkx2.1 mutants. In addition, we noticed that while some remaining Nkx2.1+ precursors still succeeded to give rise to post-mitotic neurons in vitro and in vivo in the Nkx2.1-/-, they completely lost the capacity to differentiate in astrocytes. Altogether, these observations indicate for the first time that the transcription factor Nkx2.1 regulates the proliferation and differentiation of precursors in three subpallial domains that generate early embryonic astroglia and polydendrocytes. Furthermore, in order to investigate the potential function of these early Nkx2.1- derived glia, we have performed multiple immunohistochemical stainings on Nkx2.1-/- and wild-type animals, and Nkx2.1-Cre mice that were crossed to Rosa-DTA+/- mice in which the highly toxic diphtheria toxin aided to selectively deplete a majority of the Nkx2.1-derived cells. Interestingly, in these two mutants, we observed a drastic and significant loss of GFAP+, GLAST+, NG2+ and S100ß+ astroglial cells at the telencephalic midline and in the medial cortical areas. This cells loss could be directly correlated with severe axonal guidance defects observed in the corpus callosum (CC), the hippocampal commissure (HIC), the fornix (F) and the anterior commissure (AC). Axonal guidance is a key step allowing neurons to form specific connections and to become organized in a functional network. The contribution of guidepost cells inside the CC and the AC in mediating the growth of commissural axons have until now been attributed to specialized midline guidepost astroglia. Previous published results in our group have unravelled that, during embryonic development, the CC is populated in addition to astroglia by numerous glutamatergic and GABAergic guidepost neurons that are essential for the correct midline crossing of callosal axons. Therefore, the relative contribution of individual neuronal or glial populations towards the guidance of commissural axons remains largely to be investigated to understand guidance mechanisms further. Thus, we crossed Nkx2.1-Cre mice with NSE-DTA+/- mice that express the diphtheria toxin only in neurons and allowed us to selectively deplete Nkx2.1-derived GABAergic neurons. Interestingly, in the Nkx2.1-/- mice, the CC midline was totally disorganized and the callosal axons partly lost their orientation, whereas in the Nkx2.1Cre+/Rosa-DTA+/- and the Nkx2.1Cre+/NSE-DTA+/- mice, the axonal organization of the CC was not affected. In the three types of mice, hippocampal axons of the fornix were not properly fasciculated and formed disoriented bundles through the septum. Additionally, the AC formation was completely absent in Nkx2.1-/- mice and the AC was divided into two/three separate paths in the Nkx2.1Cre+/Rosa-DTA+/- mice that project in wrong territories. On the other hand, the AC didn't form or was reduced to a relatively narrower tract in the Nkx2.1Cre+/NSE-DTA+/- mice as compared to wild-type AC. These results clearly indicate that midline Nkx2.1-derived cells play a major role in commissural axons pathfinding and that both Nkx2.1-derived guidepost neurons and glia are necessary elements for the correct development of these commissures. Furthermore, during our investigations on Nkx2.1-/- and Nkx2.1Cre+/Rosa-DTA+/- mice, we noticed similar and severe defects in the erythrocytes distribution and the blood vessels network morphology in the embryonic brain of both mutants. As the Cre-mediated recombination was never observed to occur in the blood vessels of Nkx2.1-Cre mice, we inferred that the vessels defects observed were due to the loss of Nkx2.1-derived cells and not to the cells autonomous effects of Nkx2.1 in regulating endothelial cell precursors. Thereafter, the respective contribution of individual Nkx2.1-regulated neuronal or glial populations in the blood vessels network building were studied with the use of transgenic mice strains. Indeed, the use of Nkx2.1Cre+/NSE-DTA+/- mice indicated that the Nkx2.1-derived neurons were not implicated in this process. Finally, to discriminate between the two Nkx2.1-derived glial cell populations, the GLAST+ astroglia and the NG2+ polydendrocytes, an NG2-Cre mouse strain crossed to the Rosa-DTA+/- mice was used. In that mutant, the blood vessel network and the erythrocytes distribution were similarly affected as observed in Nkx2.1Cre+/Rosa-DTA+/- animals. Therefore, this result indicates that most probably, the NG2+ polydendrocytes are involved in helping to build the vessels network in the brain. Taken altogether, these observations show that during brain development, Nkx2.1- derived embryonic glial cells act as guidepost cells on the guidance of axons as well as forming vessels. Both Nkx2.1-regulated guidepost GABAergic neurons and glia collaborate to guide growing commissural axons, while polydendrocytes are implicated in regulating brain angiogenesis. - Le tissu cérébral est composé de cellules neuronales et gliales générées dans les couches germinales qui bordent les ventricules. Ces cellules se divisent, se différencient et migrent selon des voies particulières. La spécification des interneurones GABAergiques et des neurones glutamatergiques a été largement étudiée, par contre, l'origine, le destin et la fonction des cellules gliales précoces du télencéphale embryonnaire restent peu élucidées. Depuis longtemps, il était communément accepté que les cellules gliales, et plus particulièrement les astrocytes, sont générés après la neurogénèse à partir du télencéphale dorsal. Toutefois, notre travail montre que de nombreuses cellules gliales sont générées à partir de précurseurs ventraux qui expriment le gène Nkx2.1, entre E14.5 et E16.5, c'est-à dire,à des stades embryonnaires très précoces. Le gène NK2 homéobox 1 (Nkx2.1) appartient à une famille de facteurs de transcription appelée NK2. Il s'agit de protéines qui contiennent un homéo-domaine. La spécification des précurseurs de la MGE requiert l'expression du gène homéobox Nkx2.1. De plus, la fonction du gène Nkx2.1 dans la régulation de la spécification des interneurones GABAergiques et des oligodendrocytes dans le télencéphale ventral était déjà connue. Au cours de mon travail de thèse, j'ai également mis en évidence que, Nkx2.1 régule aussi les étapes de prolifération et de différenciation de divers sous-types de cellules gliales soit de type astrocytes ou bien polydendrocytes. L'utilisation d'un anticorps contre la protéine Nkx2.1 ainsi qu'une sonde à ribonucléotides contre l'ARN messager du gène Nkx2.1 ont révélé la présence de nombreuses cellules positives pour Nkx2.1 qui exprimaient des marqueurs astrocytaires (comme GLAST et GFAP) dans le télencéphale embryonnaire. Afin de déterminer de manière sélective le sort des interneurones GABAergiques, des polydendrocytes et des astrocytes dérivés de la MGE, nous avons croisé soit des souris Nkx2.1-Cre, des souris Glast-Cre ERT+/- inductibles ou bien des souris NG2-Cre avec des souris Rosa26-lox-STOP-lox-YFP (Rosa26-YFP) Cre rapportrices. L'origine précise des astroglies positives pour Nkx2.1 a été directement établie en combinant une coloration immunologique pour les glies et une électroporation focale d'un plasmide pCAG-GS-EGFP dans les domaines subpalliaux de tranches organotypiques, puis également, par des cultures de neurosphères in vitro et des expériences d'électroporation in utero d'un plasmide pCAG-GS-tomato dans le pallium ventral d'embryons Nkx2.1-Cre+/Rosa- YFP+/- au stade E14.5. Nous avons donc confirmé que les trois régions germinales du télencéphale ventral, c'est-à-dire, la MGE, l'AEP/POA et le noyau triangulaire septal sont capables de générer des cellules astrogliales. D'autre part, l'immunohistochimie pour plusieurs marqueurs d'astrocytes ou de polydendrocytes, dans les embryons Nkx2.1-/- et contrôles ainsi que dans les neurosphères, a révélé une sévère perte de ces deux types gliaux chez les mutants. Nous avons trouvé que la perte de glies correspondait à une diminution de la capacité de division des précurseurs dérivés de Nkx2.1, ainsi que l'incapacité de ces précurseurs de se différencier en cellules gliales. Nous avons en effet observé une diminution importante des cellules BrdU+ en division exprimant Nkx2.1dans la MGE*, la POA* et le noyau septal* des mutants pour Nkx2.1. D'autre part, nous avons pu mettre en évidence aussi bien in vitro, qu'in vivo, que certains précurseurs Nkx2.1+ chez le mutant gardent la capacité à se différencier en neurones tandis qu'ils perdent celle de se différencier en cellules gliales. Prises dans leur ensemble, ces observations indiquent pour la première fois que le facteur de transcription Nkx2.1 régule les étapes de prolifération et de différentiation des précurseurs des trois domaines subpalliaux qui génèrent les astroglies et polydendrocytes embryonnaires précoces. Par la suite, dans le but de comprendre la fonction potentielle de ces glies précoces, nous avons procédé à de multiples colorations immunohistochimiques sur des animaux Nkx2.1-/- et sauvages, ainsi que sur des souris Nkx2.1-Cre croisées à des souris Rosa-DTA+/- dans lesquelles la toxine diphthérique hautement toxique a permis de supprimer sélectivement la majorité des cellules dérivées de Nkx2.1. De manière intéressante, nous avons observé dans ces deux mutants, une perte drastique et significative de cellules astrogliales GFAP+, GLAST+ et polydendrocytaires NG2+ et S100ß+ dans le télencéphale, à la midline et dans les aires corticales médianes. Ces pertes ont pu être directement corrélées avec des défauts de guidage axonal observés dans le corps calleux (CC), la commissure hippocampique (HIC), le fornix (F) et la commissure antérieure (AC). Le guidage axonal est une étape clé permettant aux neurones de former des connections spécifiques et de s'organiser dans un réseau fonctionnel. La contribution des cellules « guidepost » dans le CC et dans la AC comme médiateurs de la croissance des axones commissuraux à jusqu'à aujourd'hui été attribuée spécifiquement à des astroglies « guidepost » de la midline. Des résultats publiés précédemment dans notre groupe, ont permis de montrer que, pendant le développement embryonnaire, le CC est peuplé en plus de la glie par de nombreux neurones « guidepost » glutamatergiques et GABAergiques qui sont essentiels pour le croisement correct des axones callosaux à la midline. Ainsi, la contribution relative des populations individuelles neuronales ou gliales pour le guidage des axones commissuraux demande à être approfondie afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de guidage. A ces fins, nous avons croisé des souris Nkx2.1-Cre avec des souris NSE-DTA+/- qui expriment la toxine diphthérique uniquement dans les neurones et ainsi, nous avons pu sélectivement supprimer les neurones dérivés de domaines Nkx2.1+. Dans les souris Nkx2.1-/-,nous avons découvert que le CC était désorganisé avec des axones callosaux perdant partiellement leur orientation, alors que dans les souris Nkx2.1Cre+/Rosa-DTA+/- et Nkx2.1Cre+/NSE-DTA+/-, l'organisation axonale n'était pas affectée. De plus, les faisceaux hippocampiques du fornix étaient défasciculés dans les trois types de mutants. Par ailleurs, la formation de la commissure antérieure (AC) était complètement absente dans les souris Nkx2.1-/- d'une part, et d'autre part, celle-ci était divisée en deux à trois voies séparées dans les souris Nkx2.1Cre+/Rosa-DTA+/-. Finalement, la AC était soit absente, soit réduite de manière ne former plus qu'un faisceau relativement plus étroit dans les souris Nkx2.1Cre+/NSE-DTA+/- en comparaison avec la AC sauvage. Ces derniers résultats indiquent clairement que les cellules dérivées de Nkx2.1 à la midline, jouent un rôle majeur dans le guidage des axones commissuraux et que, autant les neurones, que les astrocytes « guidepost » dérivés de Nkx2.1, sont des éléments nécessaires au développement correct de ces commissures. En outre, lors de nos investigations sur les souris Nkx2.1-/- et Nkx2.1Cre+/Rosa-DTA+/-, nous avons remarqués des défauts sévères et similaires dans la distribution des erythrocytes et dans la morphologie du réseau de vaisseaux sanguins dans le cerveau embryonnaire des deux mutants précités. Puisque nous n'avons jamais observé de recombinaison de la Cre recombinase dans les vaisseaux sanguins des souris Nkx2.1Cre, nous en avons déduit que les défauts de vaisseaux observés étaient dus à la perte de cellules dérivées de Nkx2.1. Il existerait donc en plus de la fonction cellulaire autonome de Nkx2.1 reconnue pour régulée directement la spécification des cellules endothéliales, une fonction indirecte de Nkx2.1. Afin de déterminer la contribution respective des populations individuelles neuronales ou gliales régulées par Nkx2.1 dans la construction du réseau de vaisseaux sanguins, nous avons utilisé diverses lignées de souris transgéniques. L'utilisation de souris Nkx2.1Cre+/NSE-DTA+/- a indiqué que les neurones dérivés de Nkx2.1 n'étaient pas impliqués dans ce processus. Finalement, afin de discriminer entre les deux populations de cellules gliales dérivées de Nkx2.1, les astroglies et les polydendrocytes, nous avons croisé une lignée de souris NG2-Cre avec des souris Rosa-DTA+/-. Dans ce dernier mutant, le réseau de vaisseaux sanguins du cortex ainsi que la distribution des erythrocytes étaient affectés de la même manière que dans le cortex des souris Nkx2.1Cre+/Rosa-DTA+/-. Par conséquent, ce résultat indique que très probablement, les polydendrocytes NG2+ sont impliqués dans la mise en place du réseau de vaisseaux dans le cerveau. Prises dans leur ensemble, ces observations montrent que durant le développement embryonnaire du cerveau, des sous-populations de glies régulées par Nkx2.1 jouent un rôle de cellules « guidepost » dans le guidage des axones, ainsi que des vaisseaux. Les polydendrocytes sont impliquées dans la régulation de l'angiogenèse tandis que, autant les neurones GABAergiques que les astrocytes collaborent dans le guidage des axones commissuraux en croissance.

Extracellular matrix formation after transplantation of human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes.

Transplantation of human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hESC-CM) for cardiac regeneration is hampered by the formation of fibrotic tissue around the grafts, preventing electrophysiological coupling. Investigating this process, we found that: (1) beating hESC-CM in vitro are embedded in collagens, laminin and fibronectin, which they bind via appropriate integrins; (2) after transplantation into the mouse heart, hESC-CM continue to secrete collagen IV, XVIII and fibronectin; (3) integrin expression on hESC-CM largely matches the matrix type they encounter or secrete in vivo; (4) co-transplantation of hESC-derived endothelial cells and/or cardiac progenitors with hESC-CM results in the formation of functional capillaries; and (5) transplanted hESC-CM survive and mature in vivo for at least 24 weeks. These results form the basis of future developments aiming to reduce the adverse fibrotic reaction that currently complicates cell-based therapies for cardiac disease, and to provide an additional clue towards successful engraftment of cardiomyocytes by co-transplanting endothelial cells.