Scala delle distanze in astrofisica

La misura delle distanze in astrofisica non è affatto semplice, ma è molto importante per capire le dimensioni dell'Universo e le caratteristiche dei corpi celesti. Inoltre per descrivere le enormi distanze astronomiche sono state introdotte delle apposite unità di misura, quali l'Unità Astronomica, l'anno luce e il parsec. Esistono vari modi per calcolare le distanze: i metodi geometrici, basati sulla parallasse; gli indicatori primari, utilizzano le cosiddette candele standard, cioè oggetti di cui è nota la magnitudine assoluta, per calcolare le distanze di galassie vicine, e sono calibrati sulle misure dei metodi geometrici; gli indicatori secondari, utilizzano gli indicatori primari come calibri per poter calcolare le distanze di galassie ed ammassi di galassie lontani. Quindi le distanze si calcolano attraverso una serie di passaggi successivi, creando così una vera e propria scala, in cui ogni gradino corrisponde ad un metodo che viene calibrato sul precedente. Con i metodi geometrici da Terra sono state misurate distanze fino a poche centinaia di parsec, con il satellite Ipparcos si è arrivati ai Kiloparsec e col satellite Gaia saranno note le distanze di tutte le stelle della galassia. Con gli indicatori primari è stato possibile calcolare le distanze delle galassie vicine e con quelli secondari le distanze di galassie ed ammassi lontani, potendo così stimare con la Legge di Hubble le dimensioni dell'Universo. In questo elaborato verranno analizzati diversi metodi: i vari tipi di parallasse (quella annua e di ammasso in particolare), il fit di sequenza principale per gli ammassi stellari, le stelle variabili (Cefeidi classiche, W Virginis, RR Lyrae), le Supernovae di tipo Ia, la relazione di Tully-Fisher, il Piano Fondamentale e la Legge di Hubble.

Materia degenere: Fisica e applicazioni astrofisiche

Con la presente Tesi si vuole trattare lo Stato Degenere della materia. Nella prima parte si presenteranno le caratteristiche fisiche principali: limite di non degenerazione, differenze tra bosoni e fermioni, equazioni di stato e distribuzioni di velocità. Nella seconda parte si introdurranno i risvolti astrofisici più interessanti: pressione negli interni stellari, nane bianche, stelle di neutroni e Supernovae di tipo Ia.

L'evoluzione della funzione di massa stellare delle galassie: un test per i modelli della loro formazione

Per lo sviluppo di un modello realistico di formazione ed evoluzione delle galassie è necessario un confronto sistematico con le osservazioni in modo da verificare che i dati vengano ben riprodotti. Lo scopo che si prefigge questo lavoro di Tesi è un confronto tra le caratteristiche delle galassie presenti nei cataloghi simulati (mock), costruiti sulla base di alcuni modelli, e quelle evinte dai dati osservativi di campioni di galassie (surveys) con l'obbiettivo di far luce su quali siano le maggiori discrepanze e quindi sulla direzione in cui i modelli andrebbero perfezionati. Per far questo, si è scelto di far uso della funzione di massa stellare delle galassie (MF), in quanto strumento statistico più indicativo di una popolazione di galassie, considerando sia la totalità delle galassie, sia separatamente le star-forming e le quiescenti. Questo lavoro di Tesi attua un confronto tra le MF a 0modelli teorici, per capire a quali redshift, a quali masse e per quali sottocampioni di galassie la riproduzione dei dati avviene in maniera migliore e dove invece risiedono i maggiori problemi. Si vede come le funzioni di massa cambino al variare del tasso di formazione stellare nei modelli e le differenze che vi sono nella loro distribuzione in base a colore e SFR. Infine si studia come varia col redshift la densità numerica delle galassie quiescenti osservate e teoriche di diversa massa. Anche questo tipo di confronto ha come scopo quello di sondare le differenze tra modelli ed osservazioni su quali siano le modalità e le tempistiche di evoluzione delle galassie a seconda della loro massa e su cosa sia quello che, dai modelli, costruiti sulla base dei processi fisici che conosciamo, non riesce ancora ad essere riprodotto.

Analisi time history per la valutazione degli scorrimenti in strutture prefabbricate con collegamenti attritivi non progettati con criteri antisismici

In questo lavoro si è tentato di fornire un metodo per la calibrazione di modelli numerici in analisi dinamiche spettrali. Attraverso una serie di analisi time history non lineari sono stati ottenuti gli spostamenti relativi orizzontali che nascono, in corrispondenza della connessione trave-pilastro di tipo attritivo, quando una struttura prefabbricata monopiano viene investita dalla componente orizzontale e verticale del sisma. Con un procedimento iterativo su varie analisi spettrali sono state calibrate delle rigidezze equivalenti che hanno permesso di ottenere, con buona approssimazione, gli stessi risultati delle analisi time history. Tali rigidezze sono state poi restituite in forma grafica. Per riprodurre gli spostamenti relativi orizzontali con un’analisi dinamica spettrale è quindi possibile collegare le travi ai pilastri con degli elementi elastici aventi rigidezza Kcoll. I valori di rigidezza restituiti da questo studio valgono per un’ampia gamma di prefabbricati monopiano (periodo proprio 0.20s < T < 2.00s) e tre differenti livelli di intensità sismica; inoltre è stata data la possibilità di considerare la plasticizzazione alla base dei pilastri e di scegliere fra due diverse posizioni nei confronti della rottura di faglia (Near Fault System o Far Fault System). La diminuzione di forza d’attrito risultante (a seguito della variazione dell’accelerazione verticale indotta dal sisma) è stata presa in considerazione utilizzando un modello in cui fra trave e pilastro è posto un isolatore a pendolo inverso (opportunamente calibrato per funzionare come semplice appoggio ad attrito). Con i modelli lineari equivalenti si riescono ad ottenere buoni risultati in tempi relativamente ridotti: è possibile così compiere delle valutazioni approssimate sulla perdita di appoggio e sulle priorità d’intervento in una determinata zona sismica.

Characterization of a high-voltage-activated IA current with a role in spike timing and locomotor pattern generation

Transient A-type K+ channels (IA) in neurons have been implicated in the delay of the spike onset and the decrease in the firing frequency. Here we have characterized biophysically and pharmacologically an IA current in lamprey locomotor network neurons that is activated by suprathreshold depolarization and is specifically blocked by catechol at 100 μM. The biophysical properties of this current are similar to the mammalian Kv3.4 channel. The role of the IA current both in single neuron firing and in locomotor pattern generation was analyzed. The IA current facilitates Na+ channel recovery from inactivation and thus sustains repetitive firing. The role of the IA current in motor pattern generation was examined by applying catechol during fictive locomotion induced by N-methyl-d-aspartate. Blockade of this current increased the locomotor burst frequency and decreased the firing of motoneurons. Although an alternating motor pattern could still be generated, the cycle duration was less regular, with ventral roots bursts failing on some cycles. Our results thus provide insights into the contribution of a high-voltage-activated IA current to the regulation of firing properties and motor coordination in the lamprey spinal cord.

Testes cosmológicos aplicados a modelos de energia escura

A significant observational effort has been directed to investigate the nature of the so-called dark energy. In this dissertation we derive constraints on dark energy models using three different observable: measurements of the Hubble rate H(z) (compiled by Meng et al. in 2015.); distance modulus of 580 Supernovae Type Ia (Union catalog Compilation 2.1, 2011); and the observations of baryon acoustic oscilations (BAO) and the cosmic microwave background (CMB) by using the so-called CMB/BAO of six peaks of BAO (a peak determined through the Survey 6dFGS data, two through the SDSS and three through WiggleZ). The statistical analysis used was the method of the χ2 minimum (marginalized or minimized over h whenever possible) to link the cosmological parameter: m, ω and δω0. These tests were applied in two parameterization of the parameter ω of the equation of state of dark energy, p = ωρ (here, p is the pressure and ρ is the component of energy density). In one, ω is considered constant and less than -1/3, known as XCDM model; in the other the parameter of state equantion varies with the redshift, where we the call model GS. This last model is based on arguments that arise from the theory of cosmological inflation. For comparison it was also made the analysis of model CDM. Comparison of cosmological models with different observations lead to different optimal settings. Thus, to classify the observational viability of different theoretical models we use two criteria information, the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) and the Akaike information criteria (AIC). The Fisher matrix tool was incorporated into our testing to provide us with the uncertainty of the parameters of each theoretical model. We found that the complementarity of tests is necessary inorder we do not have degenerate parametric spaces. Making the minimization process we found (68%), for the Model XCDM the best fit parameters are m = 0.28 ± 0, 012 and ωX = −1.01 ± 0, 052. While for Model GS the best settings are m = 0.28 ± 0, 011 and δω0 = 0.00 ± 0, 059. Performing a marginalization we found (68%), for the Model XCDM the best fit parameters are m = 0.28 ± 0, 012 and ωX = −1.01 ± 0, 052. While for Model GS the best settings are M = 0.28 ± 0, 011 and δω0 = 0.00 ± 0, 059.

Testes cosmológicos aplicados a modelos de energia escura

A significant observational effort has been directed to investigate the nature of the so-called dark energy. In this dissertation we derive constraints on dark energy models using three different observable: measurements of the Hubble rate H(z) (compiled by Meng et al. in 2015.); distance modulus of 580 Supernovae Type Ia (Union catalog Compilation 2.1, 2011); and the observations of baryon acoustic oscilations (BAO) and the cosmic microwave background (CMB) by using the so-called CMB/BAO of six peaks of BAO (a peak determined through the Survey 6dFGS data, two through the SDSS and three through WiggleZ). The statistical analysis used was the method of the χ2 minimum (marginalized or minimized over h whenever possible) to link the cosmological parameter: m, ω and δω0. These tests were applied in two parameterization of the parameter ω of the equation of state of dark energy, p = ωρ (here, p is the pressure and ρ is the component of energy density). In one, ω is considered constant and less than -1/3, known as XCDM model; in the other the parameter of state equantion varies with the redshift, where we the call model GS. This last model is based on arguments that arise from the theory of cosmological inflation. For comparison it was also made the analysis of model CDM. Comparison of cosmological models with different observations lead to different optimal settings. Thus, to classify the observational viability of different theoretical models we use two criteria information, the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) and the Akaike information criteria (AIC). The Fisher matrix tool was incorporated into our testing to provide us with the uncertainty of the parameters of each theoretical model. We found that the complementarity of tests is necessary inorder we do not have degenerate parametric spaces. Making the minimization process we found (68%), for the Model XCDM the best fit parameters are m = 0.28 ± 0, 012 and ωX = −1.01 ± 0, 052. While for Model GS the best settings are m = 0.28 ± 0, 011 and δω0 = 0.00 ± 0, 059. Performing a marginalization we found (68%), for the Model XCDM the best fit parameters are m = 0.28 ± 0, 012 and ωX = −1.01 ± 0, 052. While for Model GS the best settings are M = 0.28 ± 0, 011 and δω0 = 0.00 ± 0, 059.

Three-dimensional simulations of gravitationally confined detonations compared to observations of SN 1991T

The gravitationally confined detonation (GCD) model has been proposed as a possible explosion mechanism for Type Ia supernovae in the single-degenerate evolution channel. It starts with ignition of a deflagration in a single off-centre bubble in a near-Chandrasekhar-mass white dwarf. Driven by buoyancy, the deflagration flame rises in a narrow cone towards the surface. For the most part, the main component of the flow of the expanding ashes remains radial, but upon reaching the outer, low-pressure layers of the white dwarf, an additional lateral component develops. This causes the deflagration ashes to converge again at the opposite side, where the compression heats fuel and a detonation may be launched. We first performed five three-dimensional hydrodynamic simulations of the deflagration phase in 1.4 M⊙ carbon/oxygen white dwarfs at intermediate-resolution (2563computational zones). We confirm that the closer the initial deflagration is ignited to the centre, the slower the buoyant rise and the longer the deflagration ashes takes to break out and close in on the opposite pole to collide. To test the GCD explosion model, we then performed a high-resolution (5123 computational zones) simulation for a model with an ignition spot offset near the upper limit of what is still justifiable, 200 km. This high-resolution simulation met our deliberately optimistic detonation criteria, and we initiated a detonation. The detonation burned through the white dwarf and led to its complete disruption. For this model, we determined detailed nucleosynthetic yields by post-processing 106 tracer particles with a 384 nuclide reaction network, and we present multi-band light curves and time-dependent optical spectra. We find that our synthetic observables show a prominent viewing-angle sensitivity in ultraviolet and blue wavelength bands, which contradicts observed SNe Ia. The strong dependence on the viewing angle is caused by the asymmetric distribution of the deflagration ashes in the outer ejecta layers. Finally, we compared our model to SN 1991T. The overall flux level of the model is slightly too low, and the model predicts pre-maximum light spectral features due to Ca, S, and Si that are too strong. Furthermore, the model chemical abundance stratification qualitatively disagrees with recent abundance tomography results in two key areas: our model lacks low-velocity stable Fe and instead has copious amounts of high-velocity 56Ni and stable Fe. We therefore do not find good agreement of the model with SN 1991T.

Modellazione numerica del flusso e del trasporto per l’applicazione integrata di geotermia a bassa entalpia e bonifica

L’obbiettivo che si pone questo lavoro è quello di combinare in un unico impianto due tecnologie utilizzate per scopi differenti (impianto integrato): un impianto di climatizzazione geotermico a bassa entalpia di tipo open-loop ed un impianto di bonifica delle acque di falda di tipo Pump&Treat. Il sito selezionato per lo studio è ubicato in via Lombardia, nell’area industriale di Ozzano dell’Emilia (BO), ed è definito “Ex stabilimento Ot-Gal”: si tratta di una galvanotecnica con trattamento di metalli, dismessa alla fine degli anni ’90. Durante una precedente fase di caratterizzazione del sito condotta dalla ditta Geo-Net Srl, sono stati rilevati in falda dei superamenti delle CSC previste dal D.lgs. 152/2006 di alcuni contaminanti, in particolare Tricloroetilene (TCE) e 1.1-Dicloroetilene (1.1-DCE). Successivamente, nel 2010-2011, Geo-net Srl ha eseguito una parziale bonifica delle acque di falda attraverso l’utilizzo di un impianto Pump and Treat. Grazie a tutti i dati pregressi riguardanti i monitoraggi, le prove e i sondaggi, messi a disposizione per questo studio da Geo-Net Srl, è stato possibile eseguire una sperimentazione teorica, in forma di modellazione numerica di flusso e trasporto, dell’impianto integrato oggetto di studio. La sperimentazione è stata effettuata attraverso l’utilizzo di modelli numerici basati sul codice di calcolo MODFLOW e su codici ad esso comunemente associati, quali MODPATH e MT3DMS. L’analisi dei risultati ottenuti ha permesso di valutare in modo accurato l’integrazione di queste due tecnologie combinate in unico impianto. In particolare, la bonifica all’interno del sito avviene dopo 15 dalla messa in attività. Sono stati anche confrontati i costi da sostenere per la realizzazione e l’esercizio dell’impianto integrato rispetto a quelli di un impianto tradizionale. Tale confronto ha mostrato che l’ammortamento dell’impianto integrato avviene in 13 anni e che i restanti 7 anni di esercizio producono un risparmio economico.

Numerical models to simulate the thermal performance of LSF wall panels

Fire safety of buildings has been recognised as very important by the building industry and the community at large. Gypsum plasterboards are widely used to protect light gauge steel frame (LSF) walls all over the world. Gypsum contains free and chemically bound water in its crystal structure. Plasterboard also contains gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The dehydration of gypsum and the decomposition of calcium carbonate absorb heat, and thus are able to protect LSF walls from fires. Kolarkar and Mahendran (2008) developed an innovative composite wall panel system, where the insulation was sandwiched between two plasterboards to improve the thermal and structural performance of LSF wall panels under fire conditions. In order to understand the performance of gypsum plasterboards and LSF wall panels under standard fire conditions, many experiments were conducted in the Fire Research Laboratory of Queensland University of Technology (Kolarkar, 2010). Fire tests were conducted on single, double and triple layers of Type X gypsum plasterboards and load bearing LSF wall panels under standard fire conditions. However, suitable numerical models have not been developed to investigate the thermal performance of LSF walls using the innovative composite panels under standard fire conditions. Continued reliance on expensive and time consuming fire tests is not acceptable. Therefore this research developed suitable numerical models to investigate the thermal performance of both plasterboard assemblies and load bearing LSF wall panels. SAFIR, a finite element program, was used to investigate the thermal performance of gypsum plasterboard assemblies and LSF wall panels under standard fire conditions. Appropriate values of important thermal properties were proposed for plasterboards and insulations based on laboratory tests, literature review and comparisons of finite element analysis results of small scale plasterboard assemblies from this research and corresponding experimental results from Kolarkar (2010). The important thermal properties (thermal conductivity, specific heat capacity and density) of gypsum plasterboard and insulation materials were proposed as functions of temperature and used in the numerical models of load bearing LSF wall panels. Using these thermal properties, the developed finite element models were able to accurately predict the time temperature profiles of plasterboard assemblies while they predicted them reasonably well for load bearing LSF wall systems despite the many complexities that are present in these LSF wall systems under fires. This thesis presents the details of the finite element models of plasterboard assemblies and load bearing LSF wall panels including those with the composite panels developed by Kolarkar and Mahendran (2008). It examines and compares the thermal performance of composite panels developed based on different insulating materials of varying densities and thicknesses based on 11 small scale tests, and makes suitable recommendations for improved fire performance of stud wall panels protected by these composite panels. It also presents the thermal performance data of LSF wall systems and demonstrates the superior performance of LSF wall systems using the composite panels. Using the developed finite element of models of LSF walls, this thesis has proposed new LSF wall systems with increased fire rating. The developed finite element models are particularly useful in comparing the thermal performance of different wall panel systems without time consuming and expensive fire tests.

Pyrene based conjugated materials: synthesis, characterization and electroluminescent properties

In this work, three novel pyrene cored small conjugated molecules, namely 1,3,6,8-tetrakis(6-(octyloxy)naphthalene-2-yl)pyrene (PY-1), 1,3,6,8-tetrakis((E)-2-(6-(n-octyloxy)naphthalene-2-yl)vinyl)pyrene (PY-2) and 1,3,6,8-tetrakis((6-(n-octyloxy)naphthalene-2-yl)ethynyl)pyrene (PY-3) have been synthesized by Suzuki, heck and Sonogashira organometallic coupling reactions, respectively. The effects of single, double and triple bonds on their optical, electrochemical, and thermal properties are studied in detail. These are all materials fluorescent and they have been used in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) and their electroluminescent properties have been studied.

Planar Edgeless Detectors for the TOTEM Experiment at the LHC

The TOTEM experiment at the LHC will measure the total proton-proton cross-section with a precision better than 1%, elastic proton scattering over a wide range in momentum transfer -t= p^2 theta^2 up to 10 GeV^2 and diffractive dissociation, including single, double and central diffraction topologies. The total cross-section will be measured with the luminosity independent method that requires the simultaneous measurements of the total inelastic rate and the elastic proton scattering down to four-momentum transfers of a few 10^-3 GeV^2, corresponding to leading protons scattered in angles of microradians from the interaction point. This will be achieved using silicon microstrip detectors, which offer attractive properties such as good spatial resolution (<20 um), fast response (O(10ns)) to particles and radiation hardness up to 10^14 "n"/cm^2. This work reports about the development of an innovative structure at the detector edge reducing the conventional dead width of 0.5-1 mm to 50-60 um, compatible with the requirements of the experiment.

Cytosines, but Not Purines, Determine Recombination Activating Gene (RAG)-induced Breaks on Heteroduplex DNA Structures

The sequence specificity of the recombination activating gene (RAG) complex during V(D)J recombination has been well studied. RAGs can also act as structure-specific nuclease; however, little is known about the mechanism of its action. Here, we show that in addition to DNA structure, sequence dictates the pattern and efficiency of RAG cleavage on altered DNA structures. Cytosine nucleotides are preferentially nicked by RAGs when present at single-stranded regions of heteroduplex DNA. Although unpaired thymine nucleotides are also nicked, the efficiency is many fold weaker. Induction of single- or double-strand breaks by RAGs depends on the position of cytosines and whether it is present on one or both of the strands. Interestingly, RAGs are unable to induce breaks when adenine or guanine nucleotides are present at single-strand regions. The nucleotide present immediately next to the bubble sequence could also affect RAG cleavage. Hence, we propose “C(d)C(S)C(S)” (d, double-stranded; s, single-stranded) as a consensus sequence for RAG-induced breaks at single-/double-strand DNA transitions. Such a consensus sequence motif is useful for explaining RAG cleavage on other types of DNA structures described in the literature. Therefore, the mechanism of RAG cleavage described here could explain facets of chromosomal rearrangements specific to lymphoid tissues leading to genomic instability.

Strongly magnetized cold degenerate electron gas: Mass-radius relation of the magnetized white dwarf

We consider a relativistic, degenerate electron gas at zero temperature under the influence of a strong, uniform, static magnetic field, neglecting any form of interactions. Since the density of states for the electrons changes due to the presence of the magnetic field (which gives rise to Landau quantization), the corresponding equation of state also gets modified. In order to investigate the effect of very strong magnetic field, we focus only on systems in which a maximum of either one, two, or three Landau level(s) is/are occupied. This is important since, if a very large number of Landau levels are filled, it implies a very low magnetic field strength which yields back Chandrasekhar's celebrated nonmagnetic results. The maximum number of occupied Landau levels is fixed by the correct choice of two parameters, namely, the magnetic field strength and the maximum Fermi energy of the system. We study the equations of state of these one-level, two-level, and three-level systems and compare them by taking three different maximum Fermi energies. We also find the effect of the strong magnetic field on the mass-radius relation of the underlying star composed of the gas stated above. We obtain an exciting result that it is possible to have an electron-degenerate static star, namely, magnetized white dwarfs, with a mass significantly greater than the Chandrasekhar limit in the range 2.3-2.6M(circle dot), provided it has an appropriate magnetic field strength and central density. In fact, recent observations of peculiar type Ia supernovae-SN 2006gz, SN 2007if, SN 2009dc, SN 2003fg-seem to suggest super-Chandrasekhar-mass white dwarfs with masses up to 2.4-2.8M(circle dot) as their most likely progenitors. Interestingly, our results seem to lie within these observational limits.

Applicability of the reaction window theory

Based on the molecular Coulombic over barrier model for description of slow ion-atom collisions, the reaction window theory related to projectile velocity is presented briefly. According to the theory, the state-selective differential cross sections of single electron capture in O8+ -H, A(8+) -H, Ar8+-He, Ne10+-He and Ar18+-He collisions at different collision velocities are calculated and compared with experimental results. Calculations are also done for single, double, and triple electron capture in N-15(7+)-Ne collisions at fixed velocity of 0.53 a.u., and are compared with experimental data. It is found that the predictions of the final electronic state distribution of captured electron(s) are in agreement with experimental data, and both theory and experiments show that the widths of the reaction window increase with the projectile velocity. The differential cross sections predicted by the theory are larger for smaller Q-values, vice versa, when compared with experimental data.