Women, environmental changes and forestry-related development : Gender-affected roles of rural people in land degradation and environmental rehabilitation in a dry region of Sudan

The purpose of the present study was to increase understanding of the interaction of rural people and, specifically, women with the environment in a dry area in Sudan. The study that included both nomadic pastoralists and farmers aimed at answering two main research questions, namely: What kinds of roles have the local people, and the women in particular, had in land degradation in the study area and what kinds of issues would a gender-sensitive, forestry-related environmental rehabilitation intervention need to consider there? The study adopted the definition of land degradation as proposed by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), which describes land degradation as reduction or loss the biological or economic productivity and complexity of land in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas. The Convention perceives desertification as land degradation. The dry study area in Sudan, South of the Sahara, has been the subject of land degradation or desertification discussions since the 1970s, and other studies have been also conducted to assess the degradation in the area. Nevertheless, the exact occurrence, scale and local significance of land degradation in the area is still unclear. This study explored how the rural population whose livelihood depended on the area, perceived environmental changes occurring there and compared their conceptions with other sources of information of the area such as research reports. The main fieldwork methods included interviews with open-ended questions and observation of people and the environment. The theoretical framework conceptualised the rural population as land users whose choices of environmental activities are affected by multiple factors in the social and biophysical contexts in which they live. It was emphasised that these factors have their own specific characteristics in different contexts, simultaneously recognising that there are also factors that generally affect environmental practices in various areas such as the land users' environmental literacy (conceptions of the environment), gender and livelihood needs. The people studied described that environmental changes, such as reduced vegetation cover and cropland production, had complicated the maintenance of their livelihoods in the study area. Some degraded sites were also identified through observations during the fieldwork. Whether a large-scale reduction of cropland productivity had occurred in the farmers' croplands remained, however, unclear. The study found that the environmental impact of the rural women's activities varied and was normally limited. The women's most significant environmental impact resulted from their cutting of trees, which was likely to contribute, at least in some places, to land degradation, affecting the environment together with climate and livestock. However, when a wider perspective is taken, it becomes questionable whether the women have really played roles in land degradation, since gender, poverty and the need to maintain livelihood had caused them to conduct environmentally harmful activities. The women have had, however, no power to change the causes of their activities. The findings further suggested that an inadequate availability of food was the most critical problem in the study area. Therefore, an environmental programme in the area was suggested to include technical measures to increase the productivity of croplands, opportunities for income generation and readiness to co-operate with other programmes to improve the local people's abilities to maintain their livelihoods. In order to protect the environment and alleviate the women's work burden, the introduction of fuel-saving stoves was also suggested. Furthermore, it was suggested that increased planting of trees on homesteads would be supported by an easy availability of tree seedlings. Planting trees on common property land was, however, perceived as extremely demanding in the study area, due to scarcity of such land. In addition, it became apparent that the local land users, and women in particular, needed to allocate their labour to maintain the immediate livelihood of their families and were not motivated to allocate their labour solely for environmental rehabilitation. Nonetheless, from the point of view of the existing social structures, women's active participation in a community-based environmental programme would be rather natural, particularly among the farmer women who had already formed a women's group and participated in communal decision making. Forming of a women group or groups was suggested to further support both the farmer women's and pastoral women's active participation within an environmental programme and their general empowerment. An Environmental programme would need to acknowledge that improving rural people's well-being and maintaining their livelihood in the study area requires development and co-operation with various sectors in Sudan.

Lake sediment research as a part of lake management - case studies and implications from southern Finland

In Finland one of the most important current issues in the environmental management is the quality of surface waters. The increasing social importance of lakes and water systems has generated wide-ranging interest in lake restoration and management, concerning especially lakes suffering from eutrophication, but also from other environmental impacts. Most of the factors deteriorating the water quality in Finnish lakes are connected to human activities. Especially since the 1940's, the intensified farming practices and conduction of sewage waters from scattered settlements, cottages and industry have affected the lakes, which simultaneously have developed in to recreational areas for a growing number of people. Therefore, this study was focused on small lakes, which are human impacted, located close to settlement areas and have a significant value for local population. The aim of this thesis was to obtain information from lake sediment records for on-going lake restoration activities and to prove that a well planned, properly focused lake sediment study is an essential part of the work related to evaluation, target consideration and restoration of Finnish lakes. Altogether 11 lakes were studied. The study of Lake Kaljasjärvi was related to the gradual eutrophication of the lake. In lakes Ormajärvi, Suolijärvi, Lehee, Pyhäjärvi and Iso-Roine the main focus was on sediment mapping, as well as on the long term changes of the sedimentation, which were compared to Lake Pääjärvi. In Lake Hormajärvi the role of different kind of sedimentation environments in the eutrophication development of the lake's two basins were compared. Lake Orijärvi has not been eutrophied, but the ore exploitation and related acid main drainage from the catchment area have influenced the lake drastically and the changes caused by metal load were investigated. The twin lakes Etujärvi and Takajärvi are slightly eutrophied, but also suffer problems associated with the erosion of the substantial peat accumulations covering the fringe areas of the lakes. These peat accumulations are related to Holocene water level changes, which were investigated. The methods used were chosen case-specifically for each lake. In general, acoustic soundings of the lakes, detailed description of the nature of the sediment and determinations of the physical properties of the sediment, such as water content, loss on ignition and magnetic susceptibility were used, as was grain size analysis. A wide set of chemical analyses was also used. Diatom and chrysophycean cyst analyses were applied, and the diatom inferred total phosphorus content was reconstructed. The results of these studies prove, that the ideal lake sediment study, as a part of a lake management project, should be two-phased. In the first phase, thoroughgoing mapping of sedimentation patterns should be carried out by soundings and adequate corings. The actual sampling, based on the preliminary results, must include at least one long core from the main sedimentation basin for the determining the natural background state of the lake. The recent, artificially impacted development of the lake can then be determined by short-core and surface sediment studies. The sampling must be focused on the basis of the sediment mapping again, and it should represent all different sedimentation environments and bottom dynamic zones, considering the inlets and outlets, as well as the effects of possible point loaders of the lake. In practice, the budget of the lake management projects of is usually limited and only the most essential work and analyses can be carried out. The set of chemical and biological analyses and dating methods must therefore been thoroughly considered and adapted to the specific management problem. The results show also, that information obtained from a properly performed sediment study enhances the planning of the restoration, makes possible to define the target of the remediation activities and improves the cost-efficiency of the project.

Optimaalinen rangaistus talousrikoksesta : Tutkimus velallisen rikoksista

Optimal Punishment of Economic Crime: A Study on Bankruptcy Crime This thesis researches whether the punishment practise of bankruptcy crimes is optimal in light of Gary S. Becker’s theory of optimal punishment. According to Becker, a punishment is optimal if it eliminates the expected utility of the crime for the offender and - on the other hand - minimizes the cost of the crime to society. The decision process of the offender is observed through their expected utility of the crime. The expected utility is calculated based on the offender's probability of getting caught, the cost of getting caught and the profit from the crime. All objects including the punishment are measured in cash. The cost of crimes to the society is observed defining the disutility caused by the crime to the society. The disutility is calculated based on the cost of crime prevention, crime damages, punishment execution and the probability of getting caught. If the goal is to minimize the crime profits, the punishments of bankruptcy crimes are not optimal. If the debtors would decide whether or not to commit the crime solely based on economical consideration, the crime rate would be multiple times higher than the current rate is. The prospective offender relies heavily on non-economic aspects in their decision. Most probably social pressure and personal commitment to oblige the laws are major factors in the prospective criminal’s decision-making. The function developed by Becker measuring the cost to society was not useful in the measurement of the optimality of a punishment. The premise of the function that the costs of the society correlate to the costs for the offender from the punishment proves to be unrealistic in observation of the bankruptcy crimes. However, it was observed that majority of the cost of crime for the society are caused by the crime damages. This finding supports the preventive criminal politics.

Paradise Reconsidered : A Study of the Ophite Myth and Ritual and their Relationship to Sethianism

This thesis examines the mythology in and social reality behind a group of texts from the Nag Hammadi and related literature, to which certain leaders of the early church attached the label, Ophite, i.e., snake people. In the mythology, which essentially draws upon and rewrites the Genesis paradise story, the snake's advice to eat from the tree of knowledge is positive, the creator and his angels are demonic beasts and the true godhead is depicted as an androgynous heavenly projection of Adam and Eve. It will be argued that this unique mythology is attested in certain Coptic texts from the Nag Hammadi and Berlin 8502 Codices (On the Origin of the World, Hypostasis of the Archons, Apocryphon of John, Eugnostos, Sophia of Jesus Christ), as well as in reports by Irenaeus (Adversus Haereses 1.30), Origen (Contra Celsum 6.24-38) and Epiphanius (Panarion 26). It will also be argued that this so-called Ophite evidence is essential for a proper understanding of Sethian Gnosticism, often today considered one of the earliest forms of Gnosticism; there seems to have occurred a Sethianization of Ophite mythology. I propose that we replace the current Sethian Gnostic category by a new one that not only adds texts that draw upon the Ophite mythology alongside these Sethian texts, but also arranges the material in smaller typological units. I also propose we rename this remodelled and expanded Sethian corpus "Classic Gnostic." I have divided the thesis into four parts: (I) Introduction; (II) Myth and Innovation; (III) Ritual; and (IV) Conclusion. In Part I, the sources and previous research on Ophites and Sethians will be examined, and the new Classic Gnostic category will be introduced to provide a framework for the study of the Ophite evidence. Chapters in Part II explore key themes in the mythology of our texts, first by text comparison (to show that certain texts represent the Ophite mythology and that this mythology is different from Sethianism), and then by attempting to unveil social circumstances that may have given rise to such myths. Part III assesses heresiological claims of Ophite rituals, and Part IV is the conclusion.

The Nature, Origins, and Consequences of Finnish Shame-Proneness: A Grounded Theory Study

Although shame is a universal human emotion and is one of the most difficult emotions to overcome, its origins and nature as well as its effects on psychosocial functioning are not well understood or defined. While psychological and spiritual counselors are aware of the effects and consequences of shame for an individual s internal well-being and social life, shame is often still considered a taboo topic and is not given adequate attention. This study aims to explain the developmental process and effects of shame and shame-proneness for individuals and provide tools for practitioners to work more effectively with their clients who struggle with shame. This study presents the empirical foundation for a grounded theory that describes and explains the nature, origins, and consequences of shame-proneness. The study focused on Finnish participants childhood, adolescence and adulthood experiences and why they developed shame-proneness, what it meant for them as children and adolescents and what it meant for them as adults. The data collection phase of this study began in 2000. The participants were recruited through advertisements in local and country-wide newspapers and magazines. Altogether 325 people responded to the advertisements by sending an essay concerning their shame and guilt experiences. For the present study, 135 essays were selected and from those who sent an essay 19 were selected for in-depth interviews. In addition to essays and interviews, participants personal notebooks and childhood hospital and medical reports as well as their scores on the Internalized Shame Scale were analyzed. The development of shame-proneness and significant experiences and events during childhood and adolescence (e.g., health, parenting and parents behavior, humiliation, bullying, neglect, maltreatment and abuse) are discussed and the connections of shame-proneness to psychological concepts such as self-esteem, attachment, perfectionism, narcissism, submissiveness, pleasing others, heightened interpersonal subjectivity, and codependence are explained. Relationships and effects of shame-proneness on guilt, spirituality, temperament, coping strategies, defenses, personality formation and psychological health are also explicated. In addition, shame expressions and the development of shame triggers as well as internalized and externalized shame are clarified. These connections and developments are represented by the core category lack of gaining love, validation and protection as the authentic self. The conclusions drawn from the study include a categorization of shame-prone Finnish people according to their childhood and adolescent experiences and the characteristics of their shame-proneness and personality. Implications for psychological and spiritual counseling are also discussed. Key words: shame, internalized shame, external shame, shame development, shame triggers, guilt, self-esteem, attachment, narcissism, perfectionism, submissiveness, codependence, childhood neglect, childhood abuse, childhood maltreatment, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, spiritual abuse, psychological well-being

Rukous on perintöä suvusta sukuun : Ikääntyneet ja uskonto vuosituhannen vaihteen Suomessa

"Prayer, a heritage from generation to generation" The elderly and religion in Finland at the turn of the 21st century The strong demographic changes in Europe mean that research on the elderly is highly needed, and also from the viewpoint of their resources and opportunities. Further, it is important to determine, how the elderly could find a meaningful place as members of the chain of generations in our rapidly changing society. The aim of this study was to find out how the elderly build and perceive their place in the society through religious texts. The study was based on religious texts written by elderly people in the study groups of the Finnish pensioners organization Pension Union (Eläkeliitto). These 943 short prayers, poems, and aphorisms were collected during the Tree of Life (Elämänpuu) project in 1998-1999 and were then analysed applying qualitative content analysis and grounded theory methodology. The social construction of aging and the view of communication as a collective signifying process were used as the mainstays of the research perspective. The themes brought forward by the elderly writers were grouped around three key themes: the self, the world and religion. In this examination religion with its forms of expression appeared to be deeply rooted to each of these themes and thus seems a vital part of the elderly writers' culture. In connection with the theme of the self, the religious forms of expression provided a means of building a coherent and culturally accepted self-image which is further supported by positive views of personal history and current life situation. In relation to the world theme, the elderly writers stressed the importance of close social relationships and at the same time expressed anxiety with regard to the changing world. Concerning the theme of religion, the religious forms of expression were first and foremost used in building and creating a sense of personal safety and a belief in the future. The study suggests that skill in the use of religious language enable the elderly to cope with equivocal life events and cognitive dissonance. At the social level the religious forms of expression seemed to connect the writers to the Finnish linguistic culture and identity, as well as to the collective memory, where religion plays a central part. By using religious language the elderly both exploit and maintain these considerable social resources. The key result of the study is that the elderly were found to have a significant and separate role in the continuity and well-being of society. Bound to the religious tradition, the elderly seem to carry significant information as regards the identity of the Finnish people, information which is essentially passed on to future generations. By sustaining traditions and thus the collective identity, they perform a uniquely productive task and their life experience could be seen as a particular type of capital in the society. This result also raises a grave question: Will the elderly of the future be able to undertake this task that so profoundly requires religious literacy?

Valkoisen talon kappalaiset : Yhdysvaltain presidentti-instituution viralliset puheet retorisena kansalaisuskontona

Tutkimuksen aihepiirinä on viimeaikaisen (1997-2004) Yhdysvaltain presidentti-instituution uskonnollinen retoriikka William J. Clintonin ja George W. Bushin virkakausina. Tutkimuksen tehtävä on selvittää, miten presidentti-instituutio hyödyntää uskonnollista retoriikkaa legimitaationa virallisissa poliittisissa linjanvetopuheissaan, kuten virkaanastujais- ja liittovaltion tila -puheissaan. Tutkimustehtävä jakautuu seuraaviin alakysymyksiin: 1) Millaisilla kansalaisuskonnollisilla käsityksillä ja keinoilla legimitaatiota yritetään tuottaa? 2) Ovatko kansalaisuskonnon keinot viimeaikaisten presidenttien keskeisintä työvälineistöä identifioinnissa ja erottautumisissa? 3) Ovatko kansalaisuskonnolliset teemat naturalisoituneet, luonnollistuneet? Tiivistetysti on tarkoitus tutkia viimeaikaisten presidenttien virallisista puheiden kautta, kuinka uskonto ja valtio liittyvät toisiinsa. Perusolettamukseni on, että presidentit hyödyntävät keskeisesti kansalaisuskonnollista retoriikkaa vakuuttaakseen yleisönsä ja politiikkansa. Tutkimusaineisto koostuu koostuu kahden Yhdysvaltain presidentin William J. Clintonin (1993-2001) ja George W. Bushin (2001-) presidenttien virallisista puheista, jotka on pidetty vuosina 1997-2004. Viralliset puheet ovat virkaanastujais- (Inaugural Address) ja vuosittaiset liittovaltion tila -puheet (Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union). Puheita on kymmenen ja niiden pituus on keskimäärin viisi sivua. Tutkielman teoreettinen viitekehys tukeutuu kanadalaisen uskontososiologin Marcela Cristin uudenlaiselle käsitykselle (2001) kansalaisuskonnosta poliittisena uskontona. Tämä hyödyntää kansalaisuskonnon durkheimilaista taustaa yhdistäen Jean-Jacques Rousseuaun religion civile-teesiä. Cristin mukaan kansalaisuskonto manifestoituu kahdella tavalla: sekä durkheimilaisena kulttuurisena kansalaismuotona (civil) ja rousseualaisena ideologiana (political). Nämä eivät hänen mukaansa ole toisilleen vastakohtia, vaan yhden jatkumon osia. Tutkielman metodologinen lähestymistapa on uusretorinen analyysi ja teoreettis-medologisena viitekehyksenä on sosiaalinen konstruktivismi. Analyysin perusolettamus on, että presidentti-instituution luomassa merkityksen rakennetaan sosiaalisesta todellisuutta. Instituution retoriikka suuntautuu tiettyyn sosiaaliseen yhteisöön yrittäen legimitoida mahdollisimman laajaa joukkoa politiikkansa taakse. Analyysin tuloksena huomattiin, että presidentti-instituutio hyödyntää aktiivisesti kansalaisuskonnollisia teemoja. Molempien presidentti-instituutioiden uskonnollisessa nationalismissa hyödynnetään kansalaisuskonnollisuuden sekä protestanttis-puritaanista että valistuksellista taustaa. Kyse on oikeastaan siitä,kuinka nämä puolet saavat painotuksensa. Selvää on, että molemmat presidentit hyödyntävät kaikkia kansalaisuskonnollisuuden kolmea ulottuvuutta. Molemmilta löytyy retorinen tukeutuminen transsendenssiin, moraalistinen yhteisöllisyyden vaatimus. Clintonin uskonnollinen retoriikkaa jakaantuu kahteen ulkoisesti ristiriitaiseen käsitteelliseen linssiin: lupauksellisuus ja perustajallisuus. Ne yhdistyvät hänen nimittämisissään millenniaaliseksi yhteisöksi. Bushin uskonnollinen retoriikka tukeutuu transsendenttiseen ulottuvuuteen. Hänen käsitteelisiä linssejä ovat aktiivisen Jumalan monet roolit ja ajan siunauksellisuus. (Ks. luku 8. johtopäätökset ja jatkotutkimus.) Avainsanat: Yhdysvallat, presidentti-instituutio, kansalaisuskonto, uskonnollinen retoriikka, William J. Clinton, George W.Bush

Henkisyys, hyvinvointi, yksilöllisyys ja sosiaalisuus Helsingin Astanga Joogakoulussa

Astangajooga perustuu intialaisen Sri K. Pattabhi Joisin (1915-2009) opetukseen, ja siitä on viime vuosina tullut eräs suosituimmista ja kansainvälisesti laajimmalle levinneistä modernin joogan muodoista. Joogaa voidaan pitää yleisnimityksenä Intian uskontojen piirissä muotoutuneille askeettisille soteriologisille opeille. Käsitteellä moderni jooga kuitenkin viitataan sellaisiin intialaisesta joogatraditiosta tehtyihin tulkintoihin, jotka ovat syntyneet länsimaalaisten ja länsimaisen kulttuurin vaikutuspiirissä olleiden intialaisten toimesta viimeisen n. 150 vuoden aikana. Vaikka varhainen jooga olikin kiinteä osa intialaista uskonnollisuutta, modernin joogan suhde uskonnollis-filosofisiin juuriinsa on vähemmän yksiselitteinen. Tämä on havaittavissa myös Astangajoogan tapauksessa. Tutkielmani käsittelee suomalaisten Astangajoogan harjoittajien käsityksiä joogan merkityksistä. Ensisijaisena aineistonani toimivat kymmenen Helsingin Astanga Joogakoulussa harjoittelevan Sri K. Pattabhi Joisin opetusperinteeseen pohjautuvan Astangajoogan harjoittajan haastattelut. Astangajoogan harjoittajilta ei Helsingin Astanga Joogakoulussa vaadita sitoutumista mihinkään oppeihin tai elämäntapavalintoihin. Painopiste on voimakkaasti liikunnallisen ?sana-harjoittelun säännöllisessä ylläpitämisessä. Kuitenkin myös Astangajoogan menetelmissä ja Helsingin Astanga Joogakoulun opetuksessa on piirteitä, joiden perusteella Astangajoogan ei voida sanoa olevan täysin riippumaton sen taustalla vaikuttavasta uskonnollis-filosofisesta perinteestä. Tutkimuskysymykseni ovat 1) liittävätkö Astangajoogan harjoittajat joogaan uskonnollisiksi tai henkisiksi tulkittavia merkityksiä, ja 2) millaisia nämä merkitykset ovat ja miten ne liittyvät harjoituksen muihin ulottuvuuksiin (esim. terveydellinen, sosiaalinen, psykologinen). Tältä pohjalta toivon 3) pystyväni tarkastelemaan, miten Astanga asettuu nykypäivän uskonnolliseen kenttään, ja mitä sen harjoittajien näkemykset mahdollisesti kertovat uskonnon asemasta ja luonteesta nykyaikana. Analyysimetodinani käytän aineistolähtöistä sisällönanalyysia. Vertaan analyysissa esiin nousseita teemoja Paul Heelasin holistisen henkisyyden teoriaan. Holistisella henkisyydellä Heelas tarkoittaa subjektia ja subjektiivista kokemusta painottavaa, ulkoisista instituutioista riippumatonta uskonnollisuutta, jossa ruumiillisuudella, terveydellä ja sosiaalisilla suhteilla on tärkeä asema. Haastatteluaineiston analyysin pohjalta totean, että Astangajoogalla on usein harjoittajilleen henkisenä pidetty ulottuvuus. Haastattelemieni Astangajoogan harjoittajien henkisyyttä määrittelevät sisäisyys, omaehtoisuus ja holistisuus. Astangajoogasta etsittiin mm. vaihtoehtoa dogmaattiseksi koetulle kristinuskolle. Astangajoogan harjoittamista ei kuitenkaan voida pitää uushindulaisuuden muotona, vaan sitä pidettiin ”uskontovapaana henkisyytenä”. Analyysin perusteella voidaankin todeta, että haastateltujen esittämät näkemykset vastasivat yleisesti varsin hyvin Paul Heelasin holistisen henkisyyden teorian keskeisiä teemoja. Kuitenkin myös merkittäviä poikkeuksia tästä esiintyi. Ne antavat aihetta mahdolliselle jatkotutkimukselle.

"Wicca=..." : Sosiaalisen identiteetin vaikutus wiccan määrittelyyn Suomiwicca-keskustelulistalla

Kysymys wiccan määrittelystä nousi ajankohtaiseksi vuosituhannen vaihteessa, kun joukko wiccoja päätti hakea uskonnolleen virallisen yhdyskunnan asemaa. Yritys ei onnistunut, sillä opetusministeriö piti wiccaa liian hajanaisena, eikä katsonut sen täyttävän laissa määriteltyjä uskonnon tunnusmerkkejä. Tutkielman tarkoitus on paneutua nimenomaan virallistamis-prosessin puitteissa käytyyn määrittelykeskusteluun diskurssianalyysin tarjoamin keinoin. Aineistona käytän projektin avuksi perustettua Suomiwicca-keskustelulistaa. Keskeisiä kysymyksiä ovat mm. miksi määrittely loppujen lopuksi on niin vaikeaa, ja miten siihen liittyviä ongelmia on pyritty ratkaisemaan. Samalla kiinnitän huomiota yleiseen uskonnon määrittelyyn uskonnonvapauslain näkökulmasta sekä länsimaissa tapahtuvaan uskonnollisuuden individualistumiseen. Määrittelyvaikeuksien juuret nousevat wiccan historiasta ja avoimen lähteen uskonnolle tyypillisistä piirteistä. Aineistossani lisäväriä keskusteluun tuovat lainsäädännön vaatimukset sekä oman sosiaalisen identiteetin varjeleminen. Teoreettisena viitekehyksenä toimiikin H. Tajfelin ja J. C. Turnerin sosiaalisen identiteetin teoria. Määrittelyyn kiinteässä yhteydessä olevan kategorisoinnin kognitiiviset periaatteet on niin ikään huomioitu. Analyysi paljastaa, että määrittely koetaan vaikeaksi, koska wicca on luonteeltaan epä-dogmaattinen, yksilön autonomiaa korostava mysteeriuskonto. Tällaista uskontoa ei kukaan voi eikä kenenkään pitäisi määritellä, vaan wiccalaisuus perustuu itsemäärittelyyn. Silti tunnustetaan, ettei kaikki wiccaksi nimetty ole wiccaa, ja käytännössä itsemäärittelyn rinnalle astuu muita tekijöitä. Eroa wiccan ja ei-wiccan välille yritetään tehdä mm. erottautumalla sosiaalista identiteettiä heikentävistä liikkeistä (esim. satanismi, new age), jotka ulkopuoliset usein yhdistävät wiccaan. Erotteluja tehdään myös wiccan sisällä. Kritiikin kohteeksi joutuvat sekä yksittäiset henkilöt että eklektinen wicca-suuntaus kokonaisuutena. Oikeudesta wicca-nimitykseen ja siihen liittyvään sosiaaliseen identiteettiin pidetään kuitenkin lujasti kiinni, ja vihjailuja epäaitoudesta pidetään loukkaavina. Käytännössä itsemäärittely osoittatuu siis toimimattomaksi ja liian löyhäksi strategiaksi, vaikka onkin sopusoinnussa wiccan ideologian kanssa. Itseidentifikaatio on toki oleellinen osa wiccana olemista, mutta sen lisäksi on oltava uskottava, ja tultava muiden wiccojen hyväksymäksi perheyhtäläisyyden perusteella. Perheyhtäläisyyspiirteiden sijasta listalla keskitytään kuitenkin wiccaa monoteettisesti määrittävän piirteen etsimiseen. Tällaiseksi ehdotetaan mm. redeä, jumalkäsitystä sekä luontosuhdetta, mutta tulkinnallisten erimieli-syyksien vuoksi yhtäkään niistä ei kelpuuteta. Sen sijaan selkeyttä wiccakenttään näyttää tuovan taksonomisten jaotteluiden tekeminen ja wicca-suuntausten erojen korostaminen. Näin kaikki wiccaksi nimittäytyvät tunnustetaan wiccoiksi, mutta kenenkään sosiaalinen identiteetti ei silti heikkene. Strategia vaikuttaa lupaavalta, mutta sen tasa-arvoinen toteutuminen vaatii vielä hiomista ja uudenlaisten jaottelujen vakiinnuttamista. Tämä kuitenkin todistaa, ettei tyydyttävän määritelmän löytyminen ole täysin mahdotonta, kunhan kaikki wicca-ryhmittymät huomioidaan eikä keneltäkään yritetä väkisin riistää sosiaalista identiteettiä.

Harmoniaa ja riitasointuja : Yksilön ja yhteisön hyvinvointiin liittyvät ihanteet Syon Abbeyn luostarissa (1415-1539)

Tutkimus käsittelee hyvinvointiin liittyviä ihanteita yksilön ja yhteisön näkökulmasta Syon Abbeyn birgittalaisluostarissa myöhäiskeskiajalla. Vuonna 1415 perustettu Syon Abbey kuului Englannin varakkaimpien luostarien joukkoon. Se noudatti Birgitan (1302/1303–1373) luostarisääntöä (Regula Salvatoris) ja oli säännön mukaisesti kaksoisluostari, jossa eli nunnien lisäksi myös veljiä. Tutkimuksen päälähteinä käytetään Birgitan sääntöä täydentäviä Syon Abbeyn luostaria varten kirjoitettuja sääntölisäyksiä sekä kahta nunnia varten laadittua hengellistä opaskirjaa. Hyvinvointiin liittyvät ihanteet on tässä tutkimuksessa jaoteltu fyysiseen, sosiaaliseen ja henkis-hengelliseen osa-alueeseen. Fyysisen hyvinvoinnin osalta tarkastellaan luostarin omaisuutta ja työnjakoa sekä ravintoon, vaatetukseen ja terveyteen liittyviä kysymyksiä. Varakkaana luostarina Syon Abbey kykeni tarjoamaan asukkailleen tasokkaat elinolosuhteet. Luostaria johti abbedissa, joka jakoi harkintansa mukaan työtehtävät muille luostarin asukkaille. Nunnien vastuu luostarin talouden ja arkielämän järjestämisessä oli suuri. Veljien vastuulla oli sakramenttien toimittaminen, saarnaaminen ja hengellinen ohjaus. Monilla Syon Abbeyn asukkailla oli aristokraattinen syntyperä, ja tottumus korkeaan elintasoon näkyi muun muassa ruokahankinnoissa kalliina mausteina ja muina ylellisyystuotteina, vaikka ihanteena olikin kohtuullisuus. Fyysisiin tarpeisiin liittyviä säädöksiä perusteltiin terveellisyydellä ja tarkoituksenmukaisuudella. Nunnien henkinen työ edellytti, että he olivat hyvin ravittuja ja terveitä. Vaatetuksen tuli olla yhtenäinen, millä osoitettiin toisaalta yhteenkuuluvuutta, toisaalta erottauduttiin muista sääntökunnista ja maallikoista. Sosiaalinen hyvinvointi liittyy yksittäisen nunnan asemaan yhteisössä ja siihen, miten nunnien (sekä nunnien ja veljien) välistä kommunikaatiota säädeltiin. Lähteet osoittavat, että yhteisöelämän sujuvuutta pidettiin Syon Abbeyssä tärkeänä. Pahan puhuminen, toisten loukkaaminen, juoruilu, ylempien uhmaaminen ja puhuminen hiljaisuusaikoina oli kielletty. Toisia piti kohdella kunnioittavasti ja ystävällisesti, mutta kommunikointi olisi pitänyt rajoittaa välttämättömään. Kieltojen ja määräysten runsaslukuisuus nimenomaan kommunikointiin liittyen kertonee siitä, että näitä sääntöjä ei aina noudatettu. Erityisen tiukasti kontrolloitiin nunnien ja veljien keskinäistä yhteydenpitoa. Henkinen ja hengellinen hyvinvointi liittyy luostarin varsinaiseen tehtävään. Syon Abbeyllä oli maine oppineisuuden keskuksena. Kirjallisuuden rooli luostarin elämänihanteiden luojana oli merkittävä ja sen tarkoitus oli auttaa nunnia hoitamaan hyvin tärkeintä tehtäväänsä, yhteisten hetkipalvelusten toimittamista. Veljet ja ulkopuoliset käänsivät Syon Abbeyn nunnille kirjoja englanniksi, joten myös latinaa taitamattomilla oli mahdollisuus hankkia teologista tietämystä ja ymmärtää hetkipalvelusten sisältöä. Suuri kirjasto takasi hyvät lähtökohdat opiskelulle varsinkin, kun huomioidaan, että naisten mahdollisuudet saada opillista sivistystä olivat keskiajalla rajalliset. Yksilön hengellisen elämän tukeminen palveli yhteisöä, koska luostarin hengellinen työ nähtiin konkreettisena taisteluna pahaa vastaan. Vaikka luostari-ihanteet perusteltiin Syon Abbeyssä hengellisesti, myös maallisista tarpeista huolehdittiin, koska ne loppujen lopuksi palvelivat hengellisiä päämääriä.

Living Poetically in the Modern Age : The Situational Aspects of Kierkegaard's Thought

How did Søren Kierkegaard (1813 1855) situate the human subject into historical and social actuality? How did he take into consideration his own situatedness? As key for understanding these questions the research takes the ideal of living poetically that Kierkegaard outlined in his dissertation. In The Concept of Irony (1841) Kierkegaard took up this ideal of the Romantic ironists and made it into an ethical-religious ideal. For him the ideal of living poetically came to mean 1) becoming brought up by God, while 2) assuming ethical-religiously one s role and place in the historical actuality. Through an exegesis of Kierkegaard s texts from 1843 to 1851 it is shown how this ideal governed Kierkegaard s thought and action throughout his work. The analysis of Kierkegaard s ideal of living poetically not only a) shows how the Kierkegaardian subject is situated in its historical context. It also b) sheds light on Kierkegaard s social and political thought, c) helps to understand Kierkegaard s character as a religious thinker, and d) pits his ethical-religious orientation in life against its scientific and commonsense alternatives. The research evaluates the rationality of the way of life championed by Kierkegaard by comparing it with ways of life dominated by reflection and reasoning. It uses Kierkegaard s ideal of living poetically in trying to understand the tensions between religious and unreligious ways of life.

Political transition and structural politicisation : The long shadow of Taiwan's one-party legacy

Väitöskirjatutkimuksessa tarkastellaan Taiwanin politiikkaa ensimmäisen vaalien kautta tapahtuneen vallanvaihdon jälkeen (2000) yhteiskunnan rakenteellisen politisoitumisen näkökulmasta. Koska Taiwanilla siirryttiin verettömästi autoritaarisesta yksipuoluejärjestelmästä monipuoluejärjestelmään sitä on pidetty poliittisen muodonmuutoksen mallioppilaana. Aiempi optimismi Taiwanin demokratisoitumisen suhteen on sittemmin vaihtunut pessimismiin, pitkälti yhteiskunnan voimakkaasta politisoitumisesta johtuen. Tutkimuksessa haetaan selitystä tälle politisoitumiselle. Yhteiskunnan rakenteellisella politisoitumisella tarkoitetaan tilannetta, jossa ”poliittisen” alue kasvaa varsinaisia poliittisia instituutioita laajemmaksi. Rakenteellinen politisoituminen muuttuu helposti yhteiskunnalliseksi ongelmaksi, koska siitä usein seuraa normaalin poliittisen toiminnan (esim. lainsäädännän) jähmettyminen, yhteiskunnan jyrkkä jakautuminen, alhainen kynnys poliittisille konflikteille ja yleisen yhteiskunnallisen luottamuksen alentuminen. Toisin kuin esimerkiksi Itä-Euroopassa, Taiwanissa entinen valtapuolue ei romahtanut poliittisen avautumisen myötä vaan säilytti vahvan rakenteellisen asemansa. Kun valta vaihtui ensimmäisen kerran vaalien kautta, vanha valtapuolue ei ollut valmis luovuttamaan poliittisen järjestelmän ohjaksia käsistään. Alkoi vuosia kestänyt taistelu järjestelmän hallinnasta vanhan ja uuden valtapuolueen välillä, jossa yhteiskunta politisoitui voimakkaasti. Tutkimuksessa Taiwanin yhteiskunnan politisoituminen selitetään useiden rakenteellisten piirteiden yhteisvaikutuksen tuloksena. Tällaisia politisoitumista edistäviä rakentellisia piirteitä ovat hidas poliittinen muutos, joka säilytti vanhat poliittiset jakolinjat ja niihin liittyvät vahvat edut ja intressit; sopimaton perustuslaki; Taiwanin epäselvä kansainvälinen asema ja jakautunut identiteetti; sekä sosiaalinen rakenne, joka helpottaa ihmisten nopeaa mobilisointia poliittiisiin mielenilmauksiin. Tutkimuksessa kiinnitetään huomiota toistaiseksi vähän tutkittuun poliittiseen ilmiöön, joidenkin demokratisoituvien yhteiskuntien voimakkaaseen rakenteelliseen politisoitumiseen. Tutkimuksen pääasiallinen havainto on, että yksipuoluejärjestelmän demokratisoituminen kantaa sisällään rakenteellisen politisoitumisen siemenen, jos entinen valtapuolue ei romahda demokratisoitumisen myötä.

Food intake, growth and social interactions of signal crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana)

The knowledge about the optimal rearing conditions, such as water temperature and quality, photoperiod and density, with the understanding of animal nutritional requirements forms the basis of economically stable aquaculture for freshwater crayfish. However, the shift from a natural environment to effective culture conditions induces several changes, not only at the population level, but also at the individual level. The social contacts between conspecifics increase with increasing animal density. The competition for limited resources (e.g. food, shelter, mates) is more severe with the presence of agonistic behaviour and may lead to unequal distribution of these. The objectives of this study were to: 1) study the distribution of a common food resource between communally reared signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) and to assign potential feeding hierarchy on the basis of individual food intake measurements, 2) explore the possibilities of size distribution manipulations to affect population dynamics and food intake to improve growth and survival in culture and 3) study the effect of food ration and spatial distribution on food intake and to explore the effect of temperature and food ration on growth and body composition of freshwater crayfish. The feeding ranks between animals were assigned with a new method for individual food intake measurement of communally reared crayfish. This technique has a high feasibility and a great potential to be applied in crayfish aquaculture studies. In this study, signal crayfish showed high size-related variability in food consumption both among individuals within a group (inter-individual) and within individual day-to-day variation (intra-individual). Increased competition for food led to an unequal distribution of this resource and this may be a reason for large growth differences between animals. The consumption was significantly higher when reared individually in comparison with communal housing. These results suggest that communally housed crayfish form a feeding hierarchy and that the animal size is the major factor controlling the position in this hierarchy. The optimisation of the social environment ( social conditions ) was evaluated in this study as a new approach to crayfish aquaculture. The results showed that the absence of conspecifics (individual rearing vs. communal housing) affects growth rate, food intake and the proportion of injured animals, whereas size variation between animals influences the number and duration of agonistic encounters. In addition, animal size had a strong influence on the fighting success of signal crayfish reared in a social milieu with a wide size variation of conspecifics. Larger individuals initiated and won most of the competitions, which suggests size-based social hierarchy of P. leniusculus. This is further supported by the fact that the length and weight gain of smaller animals increased after size grading, maybe because of a better access to the food resource due to diminished social pressure. However, the high dominance index was not based on size under conditions of limited size variation, e.g. those characteristic of restocked natural populations and aquaculture, indicating the important role of behaviour on social hierarchy.

Evaluation of methods and applications for behavioural profiling of transgenic mice

During the last 10-15 years interest in mouse behavioural analysis has evolved considerably. The driving force is development in molecular biological techniques that allow manipulation of the mouse genome by changing the expression of genes. Therefore, with some limitations it is possible to study how genes participate in regulation of physiological functions and to create models explaining genetic contribution to various pathological conditions. The first aim of our study was to establish a framework for behavioural phenotyping of genetically modified mice. We established comprehensive battery of tests for the initial screening of mutant mice. These included tests for exploratory and locomotor activity, emotional behaviour, sensory functions, and cognitive performance. Our interest was in the behavioural patterns of common background strains used for genetic manipulations in mice. Additionally we studied the behavioural effect of sex differences, test history, and individual housing. Our findings highlight the importance of careful consideration of genetic background for analysis of mutant mice. It was evident that some backgrounds may mask or modify the behavioural phenotype of mutants and thereby lead to false positive or negative findings. Moreover, there is no universal strain that is equally suitable for all tests, and using different backgrounds allows one to address possible phenotype modifying factors. We discovered that previous experience affected performance in several tasks. The most sensitive traits were the exploratory and emotional behaviour, as well as motor and nociceptive functions. Therefore, it may be essential to repeat some of the tests in naïve animals for assuring the phenotype. Social isolation for a long time period had strong effects on exploratory behaviour, but also on learning and memory. All experiments revealed significant interactions between strain and environmental factors (test history or housing condition) indicating genotype-dependent effects of environmental manipulations. Several mutant line analyses utilize this information. For example, we studied mice overexpressing as well as those lacking extracellular matrix protein heparin-binding growth-associated molecule (HB-GAM), and mice lacking N-syndecan (a receptor for HB-GAM). All mutant mice appeared to be fertile and healthy, without any apparent neurological or sensory defects. The lack of HB-GAM and N-syndecan, however, significantly reduced the learning capacity of the mice. On the other hand, overexpression of HB-GAM resulted in facilitated learning. Moreover, HB-GAM knockout mice displayed higher anxiety-like behaviour, whereas anxiety was reduced in HB-GAM overexpressing mice. Changes in hippocampal plasticity accompanied the behavioural phenotypes. We conclude that HB-GAM and N-syndecan are involved in the modulation of synaptic plasticity in hippocampus and play a role in regulation of anxiety- and learning-related behaviour.

Lapset ja nuoret ympäristökansalaisina : Ympäristökasvatuksen näkökulma osallistumiseen

Children and young people as environmental citizens the environmental education perspective to participation This doctoral thesis examines the participation of children and young people in developing their own environment at school, as a part of environmental education. The aim of the research is to assess and consider children and young people s environmentally responsible participation and its effectiveness in relation to the participants own learning and the end results of the participation. The research combines the perspectives of environmental education and citizenship education through the concept of environmental citizenship. Environmental education, which enhances environmental citizenship, offers children and young people the possibility to be active citizens and learn about citizenship in their own lives by taking action themselves. The research is made up of two parts which complement each other. The first part consists of an action research carried out in the Joensuu Lyseo Upper Secondary School, where an environmental education course with a traffic-related theme was planned, developed and evaluated. The second part is made up of an interview survey carried out in Helsinki. In the survey actors from schools and various city offices, who were involved in development projects of school environments, were interviewed. According to the research results, all-round cooperation and more open relations with those outside of the school environment are important ways to support environmental citizenship in schools. Thus, environmentally responsible participation offers a chance to learn competence that an environmental citizen needs the knowledge, skills and willingness to act that have not been successfully taught through traditional school education. The research introduces a model of environmentally responsible participation as a learning process, in which learning is studied through the development of competence, self-empowerment and social empowerment. The model makes the context of environmental education visible and puts emphasis on reflection in the learning process. A central factor in children and young people s self-empowerment is the sense of being heard and taken into consideration. At the moment children and young people s rights to participate are strong, due to legislation, school curricula, and several national and international agreements. Despite this, involving them in developing their own immediate surroundings has not become a part of schools and planning organisations daily life and established methods. Reasons for this situation can be found in the lack of regard and resources for these matters, in the complex nature of planning and a long time frame, and the problems of ownership and of reaching each other. Central to overcoming these obstacles are a gradual change in conduct and mentalities and the strengthening of teachers and officials competence. Children and young people need different ways and methods of varying levels of involvement, structures and arenas which enable participation and in which environmental citizenship can be realized. Key words: environmental citizenship, environmental education, citizenship education, children and young people s participation, social learning, self-empowerment, social empowerment, school, community planning