Mécanismes psychophysiques et neuronaux de la compensation dynamique de multiples champs de force : facilitation et anticipation liée à des indices de couleur

Dans cette thèse, nous abordons le contrôle moteur du mouvement du coude à travers deux approches expérimentales : une première étude psychophysique a été effectuée chez les sujets humains, et une seconde implique des enregistrements neurophysiologiques chez le singe. Nous avons recensé plusieurs aspects non résolus jusqu’à présent dans l’apprentissage moteur, particulièrement concernant l’interférence survenant lors de l’adaptation à deux ou plusieurs champs de force anti-corrélés. Nous avons conçu un paradigme où des stimuli de couleur aident les sujets à prédire la nature du champ de force externe actuel avant qu’ils ne l’expérimentent physiquement durant des mouvements d’atteinte. Ces connaissances contextuelles faciliteraient l’adaptation à des champs de forces en diminuant l’interférence. Selon le modèle computationnel de l’apprentissage moteur MOSAIC (MOdular Selection And Identification model for Control), les stimuli de couleur aident les sujets à former « un modèle interne » de chaque champ de forces, à s’en rappeler et à faire la transition entre deux champs de force différents, sans interférence. Dans l’expérience psychophysique, quatre groupes de sujets humains ont exécuté des mouvements de flexion/extension du coude contre deux champs de forces. Chaque force visqueuse était associée à une couleur de l’écran de l’ordinateur et les deux forces étaient anti-corrélées : une force résistante (Vr) a été associée à la couleur rouge de l’écran et l’autre, assistante (Va), à la couleur verte de l’écran. Les deux premiers groupes de sujets étaient des groupes témoins : la couleur de l’écran changeait à chaque bloc de 4 essais, tandis que le champ de force ne changeait pas. Les sujets du groupe témoin Va ne rencontraient que la force assistante Va et les sujets du groupe témoin Vr performaient leurs mouvements uniquement contre une force résistante Vr. Ainsi, dans ces deux groupes témoins, les stimuli de couleur n’étaient pas pertinents pour adapter le mouvement et les sujets ne s’adaptaient qu’à une seule force (Va ou Vr). Dans les deux groupes expérimentaux, cependant, les sujets expérimentaient deux champs de forces différents dans les différents blocs d’essais (4 par bloc), associés à ces couleurs. Dans le premier groupe expérimental (groupe « indice certain », IC), la relation entre le champ de force et le stimulus (couleur de l’écran) était constante. La couleur rouge signalait toujours la force Vr tandis que la force Va était signalée par la couleur verte. L’adaptation aux deux forces anti-corrélées pour le groupe IC s’est avérée significative au cours des 10 jours d’entraînement et leurs mouvements étaient presque aussi bien ajustés que ceux des deux groupes témoins qui n’avaient expérimenté qu’une seule des deux forces. De plus, les sujets du groupe IC ont rapidement démontré des changements adaptatifs prédictifs dans leurs sorties motrices à chaque changement de couleur de l’écran, et ceci même durant leur première journée d’entraînement. Ceci démontre qu’ils pouvaient utiliser les stimuli de couleur afin de se rappeler de la commande motrice adéquate. Dans le deuxième groupe expérimental, la couleur de l’écran changeait régulièrement de vert à rouge à chaque transition de blocs d’essais, mais le changement des champs de forces était randomisé par rapport aux changements de couleur (groupe « indice-incertain », II). Ces sujets ont pris plus de temps à s’adapter aux champs de forces que les 3 autres groupes et ne pouvaient pas utiliser les stimuli de couleurs, qui n’étaient pas fiables puisque non systématiquement reliés aux champs de forces, pour faire des changements prédictifs dans leurs sorties motrices. Toutefois, tous les sujets de ce groupe ont développé une stratégie ingénieuse leur permettant d’émettre une réponse motrice « par défaut » afin de palper ou de sentir le type de la force qu’ils allaient rencontrer dans le premier essai de chaque bloc, à chaque changement de couleur. En effet, ils utilisaient la rétroaction proprioceptive liée à la nature du champ de force afin de prédire la sortie motrice appropriée pour les essais qui suivent, jusqu’au prochain changement de couleur d’écran qui signifiait la possibilité de changement de force. Cette stratégie était efficace puisque la force demeurait la même dans chaque bloc, pendant lequel la couleur de l’écran restait inchangée. Cette étude a démontré que les sujets du groupe II étaient capables d’utiliser les stimuli de couleur pour extraire des informations implicites et explicites nécessaires à la réalisation des mouvements, et qu’ils pouvaient utiliser ces informations pour diminuer l’interférence lors de l’adaptation aux forces anti-corrélées. Les résultats de cette première étude nous ont encouragés à étudier les mécanismes permettant aux sujets de se rappeler d’habiletés motrices multiples jumelées à des stimuli contextuels de couleur. Dans le cadre de notre deuxième étude, nos expériences ont été effectuées au niveau neuronal chez le singe. Notre but était alors d’élucider à quel point les neurones du cortex moteur primaire (M1) peuvent contribuer à la compensation d’un large éventail de différentes forces externes durant un mouvement de flexion/extension du coude. Par cette étude, nous avons testé l’hypothèse liée au modèle MOSAIC, selon laquelle il existe plusieurs modules contrôleurs dans le cervelet qui peuvent prédire chaque contexte et produire un signal de sortie motrice approprié pour un nombre restreint de conditions. Selon ce modèle, les neurones de M1 recevraient des entrées de la part de plusieurs contrôleurs cérébelleux spécialisés et montreraient ensuite une modulation appropriée de la réponse pour une large variété de conditions. Nous avons entraîné deux singes à adapter leurs mouvements de flexion/extension du coude dans le cadre de 5 champs de force différents : un champ nul ne présentant aucune perturbation, deux forces visqueuses anti-corrélées (assistante et résistante) qui dépendaient de la vitesse du mouvement et qui ressemblaient à celles utilisées dans notre étude psychophysique chez l’homme, une force élastique résistante qui dépendait de la position de l’articulation du coude et, finalement, un champ viscoélastique comportant une sommation linéaire de la force élastique et de la force visqueuse. Chaque champ de force était couplé à une couleur d’écran de l’ordinateur, donc nous avions un total de 5 couleurs différentes associées chacune à un champ de force (relation fixe). Les singes étaient bien adaptés aux 5 conditions de champs de forces et utilisaient les stimuli contextuels de couleur pour se rappeler de la sortie motrice appropriée au contexte de forces associé à chaque couleur, prédisant ainsi leur sortie motrice avant de sentir les effets du champ de force. Les enregistrements d’EMG ont permis d’éliminer la possibilité de co-contractions sous-tendant ces adaptations, étant donné que le patron des EMG était approprié pour compenser chaque condition de champ de force. En parallèle, les neurones de M1 ont montré des changements systématiques dans leurs activités, sur le plan unitaire et populationnel, dans chaque condition de champ de force, signalant les changements requis dans la direction, l’amplitude et le décours temporel de la sortie de force musculaire nécessaire pour compenser les 5 conditions de champs de force. Les changements dans le patron de réponse pour chaque champ de force étaient assez cohérents entre les divers neurones de M1, ce qui suggère que la plupart des neurones de M1 contribuent à la compensation de toutes les conditions de champs de force, conformément aux prédictions du modèle MOSAIC. Aussi, cette modulation de l’activité neuronale ne supporte pas l’hypothèse d’une organisation fortement modulaire de M1.

Cerebellar Learning in an Opponent Motor Controller for Adaptive Load Compensation and Synergy Formation

This paper shows how a minimal neural network model of the cerebellum may be embedded within a sensory-neuro-muscular control system that mimics known anatomy and physiology. With this embedding, cerebellar learning promotes load compensation while also allowing both coactivation and reciprocal inhibition of sets of antagonist muscles. In particular, we show how synaptic long term depression guided by feedback from muscle stretch receptors can lead to trans-cerebellar gain changes that are load-compensating. It is argued that the same processes help to adaptively discover multi-joint synergies. Simulations of rapid single joint rotations under load illustrates design feasibility and stability.

Adaptive Neural Networks for Control of Movement Trajectories Invariant under Speed and Force Rescaling

This article describes two neural network modules that form part of an emerging theory of how adaptive control of goal-directed sensory-motor skills is achieved by humans and other animals. The Vector-Integration-To-Endpoint (VITE) model suggests how synchronous multi-joint trajectories are generated and performed at variable speeds. The Factorization-of-LEngth-and-TEnsion (FLETE) model suggests how outflow movement commands from a VITE model may be performed at variable force levels without a loss of positional accuracy. The invariance of positional control under speed and force rescaling sheds new light upon a familiar strategy of motor skill development: Skill learning begins with performance at low speed and low limb compliance and proceeds to higher speeds and compliances. The VITE model helps to explain many neural and behavioral data about trajectory formation, including data about neural coding within the posterior parietal cortex, motor cortex, and globus pallidus, and behavioral properties such as Woodworth's Law, Fitts Law, peak acceleration as a function of movement amplitude and duration, isotonic arm movement properties before and after arm-deafferentation, central error correction properties of isometric contractions, motor priming without overt action, velocity amplification during target switching, velocity profile invariance across different movement distances, changes in velocity profile asymmetry across different movement durations, staggered onset times for controlling linear trajectories with synchronous offset times, changes in the ratio of maximum to average velocity during discrete versus serial movements, and shared properties of arm and speech articulator movements. The FLETE model provides new insights into how spina-muscular circuits process variable forces without a loss of positional control. These results explicate the size principle of motor neuron recruitment, descending co-contractive compliance signals, Renshaw cells, Ia interneurons, fast automatic reactive control by ascending feedback from muscle spindles, slow adaptive predictive control via cerebellar learning using muscle spindle error signals to train adaptive movement gains, fractured somatotopy in the opponent organization of cerebellar learning, adaptive compensation for variable moment-arms, and force feedback from Golgi tendon organs. More generally, the models provide a computational rationale for the use of nonspecific control signals in volitional control, or "acts of will", and of efference copies and opponent processing in both reactive and adaptive motor control tasks.

Challenges to Slovakia and Poland health policy decisions: use of investment treaties to claim compensation for reversal of privatisation/liberalisation policies

Investment treaties, and possibly the EU Treaty itself, are being used by multinational companies Penta and Eureko to try and force the Slovak government to pay compensation for reversing health privatisation and liberalisation policies. Similar action has been used against the Polish government by Eureko to win compensation worth nearly 2 billion Euros and a policy commitment to further privatisation.

Performance of state space and ARIMA models for consumer retail sales forecasting

Forecasting future sales is one of the most important issues that is beyond all strategic and planning decisions in effective operations of retail businesses. For profitable retail businesses, accurate demand forecasting is crucial in organizing and planning production, purchasing, transportation and labor force. Retail sales series belong to a special type of time series that typically contain trend and seasonal patterns, presenting challenges in developing effective forecasting models. This work compares the forecasting performance of state space models and ARIMA models. The forecasting performance is demonstrated through a case study of retail sales of five different categories of women footwear: Boots, Booties, Flats, Sandals and Shoes. On both methodologies the model with the minimum value of Akaike's Information Criteria for the in-sample period was selected from all admissible models for further evaluation in the out-of-sample. Both one-step and multiple-step forecasts were produced. The results show that when an automatic algorithm the overall out-of-sample forecasting performance of state space and ARIMA models evaluated via RMSE, MAE and MAPE is quite similar on both one-step and multi-step forecasts. We also conclude that state space and ARIMA produce coverage probabilities that are close to the nominal rates for both one-step and multi-step forecasts.

Trajectory and Force Control of a Direct Drive Arm

Using the MIT Serial Link Direct Drive Arm as the main experimental device, various issues in trajectory and force control of manipulators were studied in this thesis. Since accurate modeling is important for any controller, issues of estimating the dynamic model of a manipulator and its load were addressed first. Practical and effective algorithms were developed fro the Newton-Euler equations to estimate the inertial parameters of manipulator rigid-body loads and links. Load estimation was implemented both on PUMA 600 robot and on the MIT Serial Link Direct Drive Arm. With the link estimation algorithm, the inertial parameters of the direct drive arm were obtained. For both load and link estimation results, the estimated parameters are good models of the actual system for control purposes since torques and forces can be predicted accurately from these estimated parameters. The estimated model of the direct drive arm was them used to evaluate trajectory following performance by feedforward and computed torque control algorithms. The experimental evaluations showed that the dynamic compensation can greatly improve trajectory following accuracy. Various stability issues of force control were studied next. It was determined that there are two types of instability in force control. Dynamic instability, present in all of the previous force control algorithms discussed in this thesis, is caused by the interaction of a manipulator with a stiff environment. Kinematics instability is present only in the hybrid control algorithm of Raibert and Craig, and is caused by the interaction of the inertia matrix with the Jacobian inverse coordinate transformation in the feedback path. Several methods were suggested and demonstrated experimentally to solve these stability problems. The result of the stability analyses were then incorporated in implementing a stable force/position controller on the direct drive arm by the modified resolved acceleration method using both joint torque and wrist force sensor feedbacks.

Myocardial Remodeling after Large Infarcts in Rat Converts Post Rest-Potentiation in Force Decay

Background: Post-rest contraction (PRC) of cardiac muscle provides indirect information about the intracellular calcium handling. Objective: Our aim was to study the behavior of PRC, and its underlying mechanisms, in rats with myocardial infarction. Methods: Six weeks after coronary occlusion, the contractility of papillary muscles (PM) obtained from sham-operated (C, n = 17), moderate infarcted (MMI, n = 10) and large infarcted (LMI, n = 14) rats was evaluated, following rest intervals of 10 to 60 seconds before and after incubation with lithium chloride (Li+) substituting sodium chloride or ryanodine (Ry). Protein expression of SR Ca(2+)-ATPase (SERCA2), Na+/Ca2+ exchanger (NCX), phospholamban (PLB) and phospho-Ser(16)-PLB were analyzed by Western blotting. Results: MMI exhibited reduced PRC potentiation when compared to C. Opposing the normal potentiation for C, post-rest decays of force were observed in LMI muscles. In addition, Ry blocked PRC decay or potentiation observed in LMI and C; Li+ inhibited NCX and converted PRC decay to potentiation in LMI. Although MMI and LMI presented decreased SERCA2 (72 +/- 7% and 47 +/- 9% of Control, respectively) and phospho-Ser(16)-PLB (75 +/- 5% and 46 +/- 11%, respectively) protein expression, overexpression of NCX (175 +/- 20%) was only observed in LMI muscles. Conclusion: Our results showed, for the first time ever, that myocardial remodeling after MI in rats may change the regular potentiation to post-rest decay by affecting myocyte Ca(2+) handling proteins. (Arq Bras Cardiol 2012;98(3):243-251)

Tools and methods for the quality assurance of force platforms in human movement analysis

The human movement analysis (HMA) aims to measure the abilities of a subject to stand or to walk. In the field of HMA, tests are daily performed in research laboratories, hospitals and clinics, aiming to diagnose a disease, distinguish between disease entities, monitor the progress of a treatment and predict the outcome of an intervention [Brand and Crowninshield, 1981; Brand, 1987; Baker, 2006]. To achieve these purposes, clinicians and researchers use measurement devices, like force platforms, stereophotogrammetric systems, accelerometers, baropodometric insoles, etc. This thesis focus on the force platform (FP) and in particular on the quality assessment of the FP data. The principal objective of our work was the design and the experimental validation of a portable system for the in situ calibration of FPs. The thesis is structured as follows: Chapter 1. Description of the physical principles used for the functioning of a FP: how these principles are used to create force transducers, such as strain gauges and piezoelectrics transducers. Then, description of the two category of FPs, three- and six-component, the signals acquisition (hardware structure), and the signals calibration. Finally, a brief description of the use of FPs in HMA, for balance or gait analysis. Chapter 2. Description of the inverse dynamics, the most common method used in the field of HMA. This method uses the signals measured by a FP to estimate kinetic quantities, such as joint forces and moments. The measures of these variables can not be taken directly, unless very invasive techniques; consequently these variables can only be estimated using indirect techniques, as the inverse dynamics. Finally, a brief description of the sources of error, present in the gait analysis. Chapter 3. State of the art in the FP calibration. The selected literature is divided in sections, each section describes: systems for the periodic control of the FP accuracy; systems for the error reduction in the FP signals; systems and procedures for the construction of a FP. In particular is detailed described a calibration system designed by our group, based on the theoretical method proposed by ?. This system was the “starting point” for the new system presented in this thesis. Chapter 4. Description of the new system, divided in its parts: 1) the algorithm; 2) the device; and 3) the calibration procedure, for the correct performing of the calibration process. The algorithm characteristics were optimized by a simulation approach, the results are here presented. In addiction, the different versions of the device are described. Chapter 5. Experimental validation of the new system, achieved by testing it on 4 commercial FPs. The effectiveness of the calibration was verified by measuring, before and after calibration, the accuracy of the FPs in measuring the center of pressure of an applied force. The new system can estimate local and global calibration matrices; by local and global calibration matrices, the non–linearity of the FPs was quantified and locally compensated. Further, a non–linear calibration is proposed. This calibration compensates the non– linear effect in the FP functioning, due to the bending of its upper plate. The experimental results are presented. Chapter 6. Influence of the FP calibration on the estimation of kinetic quantities, with the inverse dynamics approach. Chapter 7. The conclusions of this thesis are presented: need of a calibration of FPs and consequential enhancement in the kinetic data quality. Appendix: Calibration of the LC used in the presented system. Different calibration set–up of a 3D force transducer are presented, and is proposed the optimal set–up, with particular attention to the compensation of non–linearities. The optimal set–up is verified by experimental results.

Comparative study of four retentive anchor systems for implant supported overdentures--retention force changes

OBJECTIVES: Wear of attachments leads to a loss of retention and potentially reduces the function of complete dentures. This study evaluated the retention force changes of different prefabricated attachment systems for implant-supported overdentures to estimate the wear constancy and applicability in clinical practice. METHODS: Four prefabricated attachment systems were tested [Group SG: retentive ball attachment (Straumann, Switzerland) with gold matrix, Group ST: retentive ball attachment (Straumann, Switzerland) with titanium spring matrix, Group IB: UNOR i-Ball with Ecco matrix (UNOR, Switzerland) and Group IMZ: IMZ-TwinPlus ball attachment with gold matrix (DENTSPLY Friadent, Germany)]. Ten samples of each system were subjected to 10,000 insertion-separation cycles. RESULTS: Results showed that all types of attachments showed wear, which led to a loss of retention force after an initial increase at the beginning of the wear simulation. Attachments with a plastic retention insert or gold matrices underwent the smallest changes in retention force. The titanium spring system showed the largest changes in retention force and a greater variation between the different cycles and specimen. This behaviour is probably caused by a large fitting tolerance of the titanium spring. CONCLUSIONS: Attachment systems which possess a male and female component of different material composition are preferable. They show smaller changes in the retention force. For retention force increase and wear compensation, an attachment system should be adjustable.

A Modified Positive Velocity and Position Feedback scheme with delay compensation for improved nanopositioning performance

Acknowledgments This paper was sponsored by the Spanish FPU12/00984 Program (Ministerio de Educacion, Cultura y Deporte). It was also sponsored by the Spanish Government Research Program with the Project DPI2012-37062-CO2-01 (Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad) and by the European Social Fund.

Waste and financial management problems at the Air Force : hearing before the Committee on Governmental Affairs, United States Senate, One Hundred Second Congress, second session, February 19, 1992.

Shipping list no.: 92-0609-P.

The analysis and compensation of nonlinear sampled-data feedback systems.

"Research was supported by the United States Air Force through the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Air Research and Development Command."

Asset disposition by the RTC including the present status of the SAMDA program : hearing before the Subcommittee on Financial Institutions Supervision, Regulation and Insurance, Resolution Trust Corporation Task Force of the Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Second Congress, first session, May 20, 1991.

Mode of access: Internet.

Incentive and performance awards program : hearing before the Subcommittee on Compensation and Employee Benefits of the Committee on Post Office and Civil Service, House of Representatives, Ninety-sixth Congress, second session, August 28, 1980.

"Serial no. 96-108."