Dyslexia - towards diagnosis : the implications of corical laterality for children's reading difficulties

Dyslexia as a concept is defined and reviewed in a context of psychological, neurological and educational processes. In the present investigation these processes are recognised but emphasis is placed on dyslexia as a phenomenon of a written language system. The type of script system involved in the phenomenon is that of an alphabetic code representing phonological elements of language In script form related to meaning. The nature of this system is viewed In the light of current linguistic and psycholinguistic studies. These studies based as they are on an analysis of underlying written language structures provide a framework for examining the arbitrary and rule-governed system which a young child is expected to acquire. There appear to be fundamental implications for reading, spelling and writing processes; for example an alphabetic system requires recognition of consistent script-phonetic relationships, 'mediated word identification' and in particular uni-directional sensory and motor modes of perceiving. These are critical maturational factors in the young learner. The skills needed by the child for decoding and encoding such a phonemic script are described in a psychological and neuropsychological framework. Evidence for individual differences in these skills is noted and the category of the dyslexic-type learner emerges. Incidence is related to the probabilities of individual differences in lateralisation of brain function not favouring the acquisition of our script system In some cases. Dyslexia is therefore regarded as a primary difficulty consequent upon the incompatibility between:the written language system itself and the intrinsic, developmental skills of an individual's perceptual/motor system. It is recognised that secondary stresses e.g. socio-cultural deprivation, low intellectual potential or emotional trauma can further inhibit the learning process. Symptomology of a dyslexic syndrome is described.. The symptomology is seen by the writer to constitute a clinical entity. a specific category of learning difficulty for which predictive and diagnostic procedure could be devised for classroom use. Consequently an index of relevant test items has been compiled, based upon key clinical experiences and theoretical writings. This instrument knovn as the Aston Index is presented and discussed. The early stages of validation are reported and the proposed longtitudinal studies are described. The aim is to give teachers in the classroom the power and understanding to plan more effectively the earliest stages of teaching and learning; in particular to provide the means of matching the nature of the skill to be acquired with the underlying developmental patterns of each individual learner.

Phonological working memory and reading in students with dyslexia

Purpose: To investigate parameters related to fluency, reading comprehension and phonological processing (operational and short-term memory) and identify potential correlation between the variables in Dyslexia and in the absence of reading difficulties.Method: One hundred and fifteen students from the third to eighth grade of elementary school were grouped into a Control Group (CG) and Group with Dyslexia (GDys). Reading of words, pseudowords and text (decoding); listening and reading comprehension; phonological short-term and working memory (repetition of pseudowords and Digit Span) were evaluated.Results: The comparison of the groups showed significant differences in decoding, phonological short-term memory (repetition of pseudowords) and answers to text-connecting questions (TC) on reading comprehension, with the worst performances identified for GDys. In this group there were negative correlations between pseudowords repetition and TC answers and total score, both on listening comprehension. No correlations were found between operational and short-term memory (Digit Span) and parameters of fluency and reading comprehension in dyslexia. For the sample without complaint, there were positive correlations between some parameters of reading fluency and repetition of pseudowords and also between answering literal questions in listening comprehension and repetition of digits on the direct and reverse order. There was no correlation with the parameters of reading comprehension.Conclusion: GDys and CG showed similar performance in listening comprehension and in understanding of explicit information and gap-filling inference on reading comprehension. Students of GDys showed worst performance in reading decoding, phonological short-term memory (pseudowords) and on inferences that depends on textual cohesion understanding in reading. There were negative correlations between pseudowords repetition and TC answers and total score, both in listening comprehension.

Dyslexia, problem solving and text processing : a conceptual framework describing reading difficulties in dyslexia as an information-processing problem

Résumé : Une définition opérationnelle de la dyslexie qui est adéquate et pertinente à l'éducation n'a pu être identifiée suite à une recension des écrits. Les études sur la dyslexie se retrouvent principalement dans trois champs: la neurologie, la neurolinguistique et la génétique. Les résultats de ces recherches cependant, se limitent au domaine médical et ont peu d'utilité pour une enseignante ou un enseignant. La classification de la dyslexie de surface et la dyslexie profonde est la plus appropriée lorsque la dyslexie est définie comme trouble de lecture dans le contexte de l'éducation. L'objectif de ce mémoire était de développer un cadre conceptuel théorique dans lequel les troubles de lecture chez les enfants dyslexiques sont dû à une difficulté en résolution de problèmes dans le traitement de l'information. La validation du cadre conceptuel a été exécutée à l'aide d'un expert en psychologie cognitive, un expert en dyslexie et une enseignante. La perspective de la résolution de problèmes provient du traitement de l'information en psychologie cognitive. Le cadre conceptuel s'adresse uniquement aux troubles de lectures qui sont manifestés par les enfants dyslexiques.||Abstract : An extensive literature review failed to uncover an adequate operational definition of dyslexia applicable to education. The predominant fields of research that have produced most of the studies on dyslexia are neurology, neurolinguistics and genetics. Their perspectives were shown to be more pertinent to medical experts than to teachers. The categorization of surface and deep dyslexia was shown to be the best description of dyslexia in an educational context. The purpose of the present thesis was to develop a theoretical conceptual framework which describes a link between dyslexia, a text-processing model and problem solving. This conceptual framework was validated by three experts specializing in a specific field (either cognitive psychology, dyslexia or teaching). The concept of problem solving was based on information-processing theories in cognitive psychology. This framework applies specifically to reading difficulties which are manifested by dyslexic children.

Mind-reading difficulties in the siblings of people with Asperger's syndrome: evidence for a genetic influence in the abnormal development of a specific cognitive domain

Background: Previous research suggests that the phenotype associated with Asperger's syndrome (AS) includes difficulties in understanding the mental states of others, leading to difficulties in social communication and social relationships. It has also been suggested that the first-degree relatives of those with AS can demonstrate similar difficulties, albeit to a lesser extent. This study examined 'theory of mind' (ToM) abilities in the siblings of children with AS relative to a matched control group. Method: 2 7 children who had a sibling with AS were administered the children's version of the 'Eyes Test'(Baron-Cohen, Wheelwright, Stone, & Rutherford, 1999). The control group consisted of 27 children matched for age, sex, and a measure of verbal comprehension, and who did not have a family history of AS/autism. Results: A significant difference was found between the groups on the Eyes Test, the 'siblings' group showing a poorer performance on this measure of social cognition. The difference was more pronounced among female siblings. Discussion: These results are discussed in terms of the familial distribution of a neuro-cognitive profile associated with AS, which confers varying degrees of social handicap amongst first-degree relatives. The implication of this finding with regard to the autism/AS phenotype is explored, with some discussion of why this neuro-cognitive profile (in combination with corresponding strengths) may have an evolutionary imperative.

Typography for children with reading difficulties: preferences for type in reading books

For children with developmental dyslexia the already challenging task of learning to read is made harder by difficulties with phonological processing and perceptual distortions. As a result, these children may be less motivated to practise their literacy skills. This is problematic in that literacy can only be gained through constant and continued exposure to reading scenarios, and children who are unmotivated to practise are unlikely to develop into fluent readers. Children are active in choosing the books they read and it is therefore important to understand how the typography in those books influences their choice. Research with typically developing children has shown that they have clear opinions about the typography in their reading materials and that these opinions are likely to influence their motivation to read particular books. However, it cannot be assumed that children with reading difficulties read and respond to texts in the same way as children who do not struggle. Through case-studies of three children with reading difficulties, preferences for the typography in their reading books is examined. Looking at elements of typesetting such as spacing and size shows that this group of children is aware of differences in typography and that they have preferences for how their reading books are typeset. These children showed a preference for books that resembled those that their peers are reading rather than those that would, by typographic convention, be considered easier to read. This study is part of ongoing research into the development of alternative materials for teaching literacy skills to children with dyslexia.

A psychological investigation into the relationship between hemispheric functioning and specific written language difficulties (dyslexia), using pharmaceutical intervention techniques

This thesis attempts a psychological investigation of hemispheric functioning in developmental dyslexia. Previous work using neuropsychological methods with developmental dyslexics is reviewed ,and original work is presented both of a conventional psychometric nature and also utilising a new means of intervention. At the inception of inquiry into dyslexia, comparisons were drawn between developmental dyslexia and acquired alexia, promoting a model of brain damage as the common cause. Subsequent investigators found developmental dyslexics to be neurologically intact, and so an alternative hypothesis was offered, namely that language is abnormally localized (not in the left hemisphere). Research in the last decade, using the advanced techniques of modern neuropsychology, has indicated that developmental dyslexics are probably left hemisphere dominant for language. The development of a new type of pharmaceutical prep~ration (that appears to have a left hemisphere effect) offers an oppertunity to test the experimental hypothesis. This hypothesis propounds that most dyslexics are left hemisphere language dominant, but some of these language related operations are dysfunctioning. The methods utilised are those of psychological assessment of cognitive function, both in a traditional psychometric situation, and with a new form of intervention (Piracetam). The information resulting from intervention will be judged on its therapeutic validity and contribution to the understanding of hemispheric functioning in dyslexics. The experimental studies using conventional psychometric evaluation revealed a dyslexic profile of poor sequencing and name coding ability, with adequate spatial and verbal reasoning skills. Neuropsychological information would tend to suggest that this profile was indicative of adequate right hemsiphere abilities and deficits in some left hemsiphere abilities. When an intervention agent (Piracetam) was used with young adult dyslexics there were improvements in both the rate of acquisition and conservation of verbal learning. An experimental study with dyslexic children revealed that Piracetam appeared to improve reading, writing and sequencing, but did not influence spatial abilities. This would seem to concord with other recent findings, that deve~mental dyslexics may have left hemisphere language localisation, although some of these language related abilities are dysfunctioning.

Postural control is not systematically related to reading skills:implications for the assessment of balance as a risk factor for developmental dyslexia

Impaired postural control has been associated with poor reading skills, as well as with lower performance on measures of attention and motor control variables that frequently co-occur with reading difficulties. Measures of balance and motor control have been incorporated into several screening batteries for developmental dyslexia, but it is unclear whether the relationship between such skills and reading manifests as a behavioural continuum across the range of abilities or is restricted to groups of individuals with specific disorder phenotypes. Here were obtained measures of postural control alongside measures of reading, attention and general cognitive skills in a large sample of young adults (n = 100). Postural control was assessed using centre of pressure (CoP) measurements, obtained over 5 different task conditions. Our results indicate an absence of strong statistical relationships between balance measures with either reading, cognitive or attention measures across the sample as a whole. © 2014 Loras et al.

Indirect validation of the age-reading method for Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) using otoliths from marked and recaptured fish

Two examples of indirect validation are described for age-reading methods of Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus). Aging criteria that exclude faint translucent zones (checks) in counts of annuli and criteria that include faint zones were both tested. Otoliths from marked and recaptured fish were used to back-calculate the length of each fish at the time of its release by using measurements of the area of annuli. Estimated fish size at time of release and actual observed fish size were similar, supporting the assumption that translucent zones are laid down on an annual basis. A second method for validating reading criteria used otolith age and von Bertalanffy parameters, estimated from the tagging data, to predict how much each fish grew in length after tagging. We found that otolith aging criteria applied to otoliths from tagged and recovered Pacific cod predicted quite accurately the growth increments that we observed in these specimens. These results provide further evidence that the current aging criteria are not underestimating the age of the fish and support our current interpretation of checks (i.e., as subannual marks). We expect these indirect validations to advance age determination for Pacific cod, which in turn would enhance development of stock assessment methods based on age structure for this species in the eastern Bering Sea.

Proofreading Using an Assistive Software Homophone Tool Compensatory and Remedial Effects on the Literacy Skills of Students With Reading Difficulties

The present study investigated the effects of using an assistive software homophone tool on the assisted proofreading performance and unassisted basic skills of secondary-level students with reading difficulties. Students aged 13 to 15 years proofread passages for homophonic errors under three conditions: with the homophone tool, with homophones highlighted only, or with no help. The group using the homophone tool significantly outperformed the other two groups on assisted proofreading and outperformed the others on unassisted spelling, although not significantly. Remedial (unassisted) improvements in automaticity of word recognition, homophone proofreading, and basic reading were found over all groups. Results elucidate the differential contributions of each function of the homophone tool and suggest that with the proper training, assistive software can help not only students with diagnosed disabilities but also those with generally weak reading skills.