The Gerbera cDNA Microarray: A Tool for Large-Scale Identification of Genes Involved in Flower Development

During the past ten years, large-scale transcript analysis using microarrays has become a powerful tool to identify and predict functions for new genes. It allows simultaneous monitoring of the expression of thousands of genes and has become a routinely used tool in laboratories worldwide. Microarray analysis will, together with other functional genomics tools, take us closer to understanding the functions of all genes in genomes of living organisms. Flower development is a genetically regulated process which has mostly been studied in the traditional model species Arabidopsis thaliana, Antirrhinum majus and Petunia hybrida. The molecular mechanisms behind flower development in them are partly applicable in other plant systems. However, not all biological phenomena can be approached with just a few model systems. In order to understand and apply the knowledge to ecologically and economically important plants, other species also need to be studied. Sequencing of 17 000 ESTs from nine different cDNA libraries of the ornamental plant Gerbera hybrida made it possible to construct a cDNA microarray with 9000 probes. The probes of the microarray represent all different ESTs in the database. From the gerbera ESTs 20% were unique to gerbera while 373 were specific to the Asteraceae family of flowering plants. Gerbera has composite inflorescences with three different types of flowers that vary from each other morphologically. The marginal ray flowers are large, often pigmented and female, while the central disc flowers are smaller and more radially symmetrical perfect flowers. Intermediate trans flowers are similar to ray flowers but smaller in size. This feature together with the molecular tools applied to gerbera, make gerbera a unique system in comparison to the common model plants with only a single kind of flowers in their inflorescence. In the first part of this thesis, conditions for gerbera microarray analysis were optimised including experimental design, sample preparation and hybridization, as well as data analysis and verification. Moreover, in the first study, the flower and flower organ-specific genes were identified. After the reliability and reproducibility of the method were confirmed, the microarrays were utilized to investigate transcriptional differences between ray and disc flowers. This study revealed novel information about the morphological development as well as the transcriptional regulation of early stages of development in various flower types of gerbera. The most interesting finding was differential expression of MADS-box genes, suggesting the existence of flower type-specific regulatory complexes in the specification of different types of flowers. The gerbera microarray was further used to profile changes in expression during petal development. Gerbera ray flower petals are large, which makes them an ideal model to study organogenesis. Six different stages were compared and specifically analysed. Expression profiles of genes related to cell structure and growth implied that during stage two, cells divide, a process which is marked by expression of histones, cyclins and tubulins. Stage 4 was found to be a transition stage between cell division and expansion and by stage 6 cells had stopped division and instead underwent expansion. Interestingly, at the last analysed stage, stage 9, when cells did not grow any more, the highest number of upregulated genes was detected. The gerbera microarray is a fully-functioning tool for large-scale studies of flower development and correlation with real-time RT-PCR results show that it is also highly sensitive and reliable. Gene expression data presented here will be a source for gene expression mining or marker gene discovery in the future studies that will be performed in the Gerbera Laboratory. The publicly available data will also serve the plant research community world-wide.

Plant regeneration from protoplasts of Capsicum annuum L cv. California Wonder

Plant regeneration from mesophyll protoplasts of pepper, Capsicum annuum L. cv. California Wonder has been demonstrated via shoot organogenesis, Protoplasts isolated from fully expanded leaves of 3-week-old axenic shoots when cultured in TM medium supplemented with 1 mgl(-1) NAA, 1 mgl(-1) 2, 4-D, 0.5 mgl(-1) BAP (CM 1) resulted in divisions with a frequency ranging from 20-25%. Antioxidant ascorbic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) in the medium and incubation in the dark helped overcome browning of protoplasts. Microcalli and macrocalli were formed in TM medium containing 2 mgl(-1) NAA and 0.5 mgl(-1) BAP (CM II) and MS gelled medium containing 2 mgl(-1) NAA and 0.5 mgl(-1) BAP (CM III), respectively, Regeneration of plantlets was possible via caulogenesis, Microshoots, 2-5 per callus appeared on MS gelled medium enriched with 0.5 mgl(-1) IAA, 2 mgl(-1) GA and 10 mgl(-1) BAP (CM IVc). Rooting of microshoots was obtained on half strength gelled medium containing 1 mgl(-1) NAA and 0.5 mgl(-1) BAP, Protoplasts isolated from cotyledons failed to divide and degenerated eventually.

Autoimmune Regulator (AIRE) in the Maintenance of Immunological Tolerance

Autoimmune regulator (AIRE) is the gene mutated in the human polyglandular autoimmune disease called Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy, candidiasis, and ectodermal dystrophy (APECED) that belongs to the Finnish disease heritage. Murine Aire has been shown to be important in the generation of the T cell central tolerance in the thymus by promoting the expression of ectopic tissue-specific antigens in the thymic medulla. Aire is also involved in the thymus tissue organization during organogenesis. In addition to the thymus, AIRE/Aire is expressed in the secondary lymphoid organs. Accordingly, a role for AIRE/Aire in the maintenance of peripheral tolerance has been suggested. Peripheral tolerance involves mechanisms that suppress immune responses in secondary lymphoid organs. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are an important suppressive T cell population mediating the peripheral tolerance. Tregs are generated in the thymus but also in the peripheral immune system T cells can acquire the Treg-phenotype. The aim of this study was to characterize Tregs in APECED patients and in the APECED mouse model (Aire-deficient mice). In the mouse model, it was possible to separate Aire expression in the thymus and in the secondary lymphoid organs. The relative importance of thymic and peripheral Aire expression in the maintenance of immunological tolerance was studied in an experimental model that was strongly biased towards autoimmunity, i.e. lymphopenia-induced proliferation (LIP) of lymphocytes. This experimental model was also utilised to study the behaviour of T cells with dual-specific T cell receptors (TCR) during the proliferation. The Treg phenotype was studied by flow cytometry and relative gene expression with real-time polymerase chain reaction. TCR repertoires of the Tregs isolated from APECED patients and healthy controls were also compared. The dual-specific TCRs were studied with the TCR repertoire analysis that was followed with sequencing of the chosen TCR genes in order to estimate changes in the dual-specific TCR diversity. The Treg function was tested with an in vitro suppression assay. The APECED patients had normal numbers of Tregs but the phenotype and suppressive functions of the Tregs were impaired. In order to separate Aire functions in the thymus from its yet unknown role in the secondary lymphoid organs, the phenomenon of LIP was utilised. In this setting, the lymphocytes that are adoptively transferred to a lymphopenic recipient proliferate to stimuli from self-originating antigens. This proliferation can result in autoimmunity if peripheral tolerance is not fully functional. When lymphocytes that had matured without Aire in the thymus were transferred to lymphopenic Aire-sufficient recipients, no clinical autoimmunity followed. The Aire-deficient donor-originating lymphocytes hyperproliferated, and other signs of immune dysregulation were also found in the recipients. Overt autoimmunity, however, was prevented by the Aire-deficient donor-originating Tregs that hyperproliferated in the recipients. Aire-deficient lymphopenic mice were used to study whether peripheral loss of Aire had an impact on the maintenance of peripheral tolerance. When normal lymphocytes were transferred to these Aire-deficient lymphopenic recipients, the majority of recipients developed a clinically symptomatic colitis. The colitis was confirmed also by histological analysis of the colon tissue sections. In the Aire-deficient lymphopenic recipients Tregs were proliferating significantly less than in the control group s recipients that had normal Aire expression in their secondary lymphoid organs. This study shows that Aire is not only important in the central tolerance but is also has a significant role in the maintenance of the peripheral tolerance both in mice and men. Aire expressed in the secondary lymphoid organs is involved in the functions of Tregs during an immune response. This peripheral expression appears to be relatively more important in some situations since only those lymphopenic recipients that had lost peripheral expression of Aire developed a symptomatic autoimmune disease. This AIRE-related Treg defect could be clinically important in understanding the pathogenesis of APECED.

Regeneration of plantlets from leaf disc cultures of rosewood: control of leaf abscission and shoot tip necrosis

A method for mass production of rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.) trees through leaf disc organogenesis was developed and standardized. Compact callus was initiated from mature leaf discs on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal medium supplemented with 1.0 mg 1?1 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D), 5.0 mg 1?1 ?-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), 1.0 mg 1?1 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 10% coconut water (CW). High frequency (15�20 shoots/g callus) regeneration of shoot bud differentiation was obtained on MS (3/4 reduced major elements) or Woody Plant Medium (WPM) or modified Woody Plant Medium (mWPM) supplemented with BAP (5.0 mg 1?1) and NAA (0.5 mg 1?1). Leaf abscission and shoot tip necrosis was controlled using mWPM. About 90% of the excised shoots were rooted in the mWPM supplemented with 2.0 mg 1?1 ?-indolebutyric acid (IBA) and 1.0 mg 1?1 caffeic acid. The in vitro-raised rooted plantlets were hardened for successful transplantation to soil. The transplanted plants were exposed to various humidity conditions and 80% transplant success was achieved. The in vitro-raised leaf-regenerated plants grew normally and vigorously in soil.

Morphology and electrostatics play active role in neuronal differentiation processes on flexible conducting substrates

This commentary discusses and summarizes the key highlights of our recently reported work entitled ``Neuronal Differentiation of Embryonic Stem Cell Derived Neuronal Progenitors Can Be Regulated by Stretchable Conducting Polymers.'' The prospect of controlling the mechanical-rigidity and the surface conductance properties offers a unique combination for tailoring the growth and differentiation of neuronal cells. We emphasize the utility of transparent elastomeric substrates with coatings of electrically conducting polymer to realize the desired substrate-characteristics for cellular development processes. Our study showed that neuronal differentiation from ES cells is highly influenced by the specific substrates on which they are growing. Thus, our results provide a better strategy for regulated neuronal differentiation by using such functional conducting surfaces.

Polymer optoelectronic structures for retinal prosthesis

This commentary highlights the effectiveness of optoelectronic properties of polymer semiconductors based on recent results emerging from our laboratory, where these materials are explored as artificial receptors for interfacing with the visual systems. Organic semiconductors based polymer layers in contact with physiological media exhibit interesting photophysical features, which mimic certain natural photoreceptors, including those in the retina. The availability of such optoelectronic materials opens up a gateway to utilize these structures as neuronal interfaces for stimulating retinal ganglion cells. In a recently reported work entitled ``A polymer optoelectronic interface provides visual cues to a blind retina,'' we utilized a specific configuration of a polymer semiconductor device structure to elicit neuronal activity in a blind retina upon photoexcitation. The elicited neuronal signals were found to have several features that followed the optoelectronic response of the polymer film. More importantly, the polymer-induced retinal response resembled the natural response of the retina to photoexcitation. These observations open up a promising material alternative for artificial retina applications.

Wnt and FGF signaling in C. elegans vulval cell lineage polarity

The interpretation of extracellular cues leading to the polarization of intracellular components and asymmetric cell divisions is a fundamental part of metazoan organogenesis. The C. elegans vulva, with its invariant cell lineage and interaction of multiple cell signaling pathways, provides an excellent model for the study of cell polarity within an organized epithelial tissue. Herein I discuss the interaction of Wnt and FGF signaling in controlling vulval cell lineage polarity with emphasis on the posterior-most cell that forms the vulva, P7.p.

The mirror symmetry of the C. elegans vulva is achieved by the opposite division orientation of the vulval precursor cells (VPCs) flanking the axis of symmetry. Opposing Wnt signals control the division patterns of the VPCs by controlling the localization of SYS-1/ β-catenin toward the direction of the Wnt gradient. Multiple Wnt signals, expressed at the axis of symmetry, promote the wild-type, anterior-facing, P7.p orientation, whereas Wnts EGL-20 and CWN-1 from the tail and posterior body wall muscle, respectively, promote the daughter cells of P7.p to face the posterior. EGL-20 acts through a member of the LDL receptor superfamily, LRP-2, along with Ror/CAM-1 and Van Gogh/VANG-1. All three transmembrane proteins control orientation through the localization of the SYS-1.

The Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF) pathway acts in concert with LIN-17/Frizzled to regulate the localization of SYS-1. The source of the FGF ligand is the 1° VPC, P6.p, which controls the polarity of the neighboring 2° VPC, P7.p, by signaling through the sex myoblasts (SMs), activating the FGF pathway. The Wnt, cwn-1, is expressed in the posterior body wall muscle of the worm as well as the SMs, making it the only Wnt expressed on the posterior and anterior sides of P7.p at the time of the polarity decision. Both sources of cwn-1 act instructively to influence P7.p polarity in the direction of the Wnt gradient. The FGF pathway leads to the regulation of cwn-1 transcripts in the SMs. These results illustrate the first evidence of the interaction between FGF and Wnt in C. elegans development and vulval cell lineage polarity as well as highlight the promiscuous nature of Wnt signaling within C. elegans.

Signal transduction, regulation, and developmental logic of EGFR signalling in C. elegans

RTKs-mediated signaling systems and the pathways with which they interact (e.g., those initiated by G protein-mediated signaling) involve a highly cooperative network that sense a large number of cellular inputs and then integrate, amplify, and process this information to orchestrate an appropriate set of cellular responses. The responses include virtually all aspects of cell function, from the most fundamental (proliferation, differentiation) to the most specialized (movement, metabolism, chemosensation). The basic tenets of RTK signaling system seem rather well established. Yet, new pathways and even new molecular players continue to be discovered. Although we believe that many of the essential modules of RTK signaling system are rather well understood, we have relatively little knowledge of the extent of interaction among these modules and their overall quantitative importance.

My research has encompassed the study of both positive and negative signaling by RTKs in C. elegans. I identified the C. elegans S0S-1 gene and showed that it is necessary for multiple RAS-mediated developmental signals. In addition, I demonstrated that there is a SOS-1-independent signaling during RAS-mediated vulval differentiation. By assessing signal outputs from various triple mutants, I have concluded that this SOS-1-independent signaling is not mediated by PTP-2/SHP-2 or the removal of inhibition by GAP-1/ RasGAP and it is not under regulation by SLI-1/Cb1. I speculate that there is either another exchange factor for RASor an as yet unidentified signaling pathway operating during RAS-mediated vulval induction in C. elegans.

In an attempt to uncover the molecular mechanisms of negative regulation of EGFR signaling by SLI-1/Cb1, I and two other colleagues codiscovered that RING finger domain of SLI-1 is partially dispensable for activity. This structure-function analysis shows that there is an ubiquitin protein ligase-independent activity for SLI-1 in regulating EGFR signaling. Further, we identified an inhibitory tyrosine of LET-23/ EGFR requiring sli-1(+)for its effects: removal of this tyrosine closely mimics loss of sli-1 but not loss of other negative regulator function.

By comparative analysis of two RTK pathways with similar signaling mechanisms, I have found that clr-1, a previously identified negative regulator of egl-15 mediated FGFR signaling, is also involved in let-23 EGFR signaling. The success of this approach promises a similar reciprocal test and could potentially extend to the study of other signaling pathways with similar signaling logic.

Finally, by correlating the developmental expression of lin-3 EGF to let-23 EGFR signaling activity, I demonstrated the existence of reciprocal EGF signaling in coordinating the morphogenesis of epithelia. This developmental logic of EGF signaling could provide a basis to understand a universal mechanism for organogenesis.

Cultura de tecidos e conservação in vitro de Passiflora foetida L.

O gênero Passiflora ocorre principalmente em regiões de clima tropical, sendo o Brasil um importante centro de diversidade. Passiflora foetida L. é uma espécie silvestre que apresenta características de interesse ornamental e medicinal. O objetivo deste trabalho foi o estabelecimento de sistemas de cultura de tecidos e criopreservação para P. foetida. Explantes caulinares foram excisados de culturas primárias obtidas a partir de plântulas derivadas da germinação in vitro. Para isso foram inoculados em meio MSM, suplementado com diferentes concentrações de ANA, PIC, TDZ e BAP utilizado isoladamente ou em combinação com ANA, e mantidos na presença ou ausência de luz. Foi observada a produção de brotos, calos e raízes adventícias, de acordo com o tipo e a concentração do regulador de crescimento testado e da condição de cultura utilizada. A produção de plantas ocorreu via organogênese direta e indireta em resposta a BAP, enquanto que a formação de calos não morfogênicos foi observada a partir de ambos explantes em resposta a PIC. A produção de raízes adventícias ocorreu em resposta a ANA. Tendo em vista a produção de raízes observada em meio sólido, segmentos internodais foram inoculados em meio líquido suplementado com diferentes auxinas e mantidos em imersão contínua ou sobre pontes de papel de filtro. A maior taxa de multiplicação de raízes foi observada a partir de entrenós mantidos no sistema de ponte de papel de filtro, em resposta a ANA. Segmentos radiculares excisados das culturas primárias também foram utilizados visando à produção de brotos e a multiplicação de raízes. Contudo, apenas foi observada a formação de gemas, sem posterior desenvolvimento de brotos. Além disso, a capacidade proliferativa dos segmentos radiculares inoculados em meio suplementado com ANA foi menor que a obtida a partir dos entrenós cultivados nas mesmas condições. Neste trabalho, foram também testados diferentes protocolos de criopreservação para ápices caulinares de P. foetida por meio de vitrificação e encapsulamento-vitrificação. A recuperação de plantas pós-congelamento foi observada unicamente a partir de ápices encapsulados e expostos à solução de vitrificação PVS2 por 120 minutos. Tendo em vista o potencial medicinal já descrito para P. foetida, através dos diferentes sistemas de cultura desenvolvidos neste trabalho serão obtidos materiais para a avaliação de diferentes atividades biológicas.

DLK1 and DLK2 characterization in mouse salivary gland development

103 p.; 102 p.

茄科天仙子族：结构、分化和系统关系

本文研究了茄科天仙子族7属以及有亲缘关系的颠茄属、茄参属和枸杞属的形态学、解剖学、孢粉学、种子形态学、胚胎学、花器官发生、分子系统学和分支系统学;论述了它们的结构、分化和系统关系。主要内容包括： 1．解剖学 在光学显微镜和扫描电镜下，观察了茄科天仙子族(Hyoscyameae)7属21种及邻近4属4种共25种植物的叶表皮特征，结果表明：气孔器在各种植物的上、下的表皮均有分布，多为无规则型，也有不等细胞型;叶表皮细胞形状有不规则形、十字形、近长圆形和不规则多边形，垂周壁较平直或各种波状。叶表皮气孔器外拱盖内缘近平滑、浅波状或波状;角质膜多为具条纹，也有同时具条纹和颗粒或鳞片，偶尔仅具颗粒和鳞片或光滑。气孔器类型可以作为区分部分属的依据之一。颠茄叶表皮细胞形状和垂周壁式样在一些属和种中有一定的规律性，并与外部形态、孢粉学性状或地理分布相关;叶片表面角质膜的特征对属和种的划分也有一定意义。 2．种子形态学 在扫描电子显微镜下首次全面研究了天仙子族及颠茄属和茄参属等共10属25种植物的种子形态学特征，结果表明： 该族植物种子表面纹饰有脑纹状或近脑纹状和网状两大类，除了山莨菪属Anisodus和Hyoscyamus.pusillus 外，其余类群均为网状。外种皮细胞形状和周壁式样有两大类，一类为多边形至近圆形，等径，周壁近平直，另一类为形状不规则，常不等径，周壁为各式波状;外种皮细胞周壁内侧有皱波状、瘤状、小颗粒、片状或小刺等各式附属物。各属植物的种子大小、形状及种脐着生位置的系统学意义不大。但是，种脐突出与否、种子外种皮细胞形状和周壁式样，尤其是周壁内侧附属物等性状具有较大的分类学意义。 3．孢粉学 在扫描电镜下研究了该族7属及其它3属共10属23种植物的花粉形态学特征。结果表明：天仙子族的花粉粒形状为球形、近球形、扁球形和长球形;萌发孔类型有无萌发孔、不规则的拟孔、3沟、4 沟、3- 4沟、散沟和3孔沟;外壁纹饰为小刺状、瘤状、各式条纹状、条纹-穴状、条纹-网状、皱波状、细网状和网状。沟膜近光滑、具小颗粒、具小刺状突起或具瘤状突起。各属植物的花粉形态在萌发孔的有无、萌发孔的类型和外壁纹饰等方面有较大的差异，可以作为探讨属间分类和系统关系的重要依据。天仙子族植物花粉萌发孔的演化趋势为：无萌发孔→ 3、4沟→3孔沟。无萌发孔的山莨菪属是原始类群，三孔沟的马尿泡和天仙子等属是进化类群。 4．胚胎学 本论文首次研究了天仙子族山莨菪Anisodus tanguticus的胚胎学特征，结果表明：山莨菪的小孢子形成为同时型，腺质绒毡层;胚珠半倒生，单珠被，薄珠心;蓼型胚囊;其胚胎发生类型可能为茄型;胚乳形成为细胞型。山莨菪的胚胎学性状与马尿泡十分相似。胚胎学证据支持山莨菪属与马尿泡属关系密切的观点。 5．花器官发生 首次全面研究了天仙子族的山莨菪属（山莨菪）、马尿泡属（马尿泡）、天仙子属（天仙子）及其邻近2属共5种植物的花器官发生特征，结果表明：山莨菪和天仙子的5个花萼裂片原基突起最早发生，且几乎是近同时环状发生，其排列方式从花发育早期直至花成熟后始终为轮状排列。而马尿泡和颠茄首先是5个花萼裂片原基突起依次螺旋状发生，但在其5个花萼裂片原基都出现后，其排列方式仍为轮状排列。不同之处是：马尿泡的花萼裂片原基在其花冠裂片原基刚刚不明显地发生时，就已经在基部联合并形成了一个环，而颠茄的花萼裂片原基直到雄蕊原基突起开始发生并较明显时，花萼裂片原基仍然是分离的，当花顶的中央开始出现很不明显的雌蕊原基的凹陷时，花萼裂片原基才开始联合。青海茄参与其它4种植物的不同之处在于柱头2裂或3裂，而后4者的柱头均为2裂。花器官发生的特征表明马尿泡与天仙子和山莨菪的关系较近。 6．基于叶绿体DNA trnL-F序列和核糖体DNA ITS序列的初步分析 以宁夏枸杞作为外类群，对代表天仙子族及其邻近3属的10种植物的ITS区和trnL-F序列进行了测定，将这两个序列结合构建系统树。将gaps作为fifth base处理时，马尿泡属和茄参属构成最基部的一支，赛莨菪属和天仙子属构成一支然后与泡囊草属构成姐妹群，另外一支由天蓬子属、颠茄属和山莨菪属组成，其中天蓬子属与颠茄属构成一支后与山莨菪属构成姐妹群。分子证据只是一个尝试，还不足以说明天仙子族各属的系统关系。 7．分支分析 以枸杞属为外类群，基于形态学、叶表皮、种子形态学、孢粉学等特征对天仙子族7属及颠茄属和茄参属进行了分支分析。结果表明：目前公认的天仙子族7属构成一个单系类群，而颠茄属和茄参属并没有包括在内，它们两者构成一支，并与天仙子族形成姐妹群的关系。这与该族传统的分类结果相一致。 8．天仙子族的分化和系统关系 基于上述研究结果，结合天仙子族各属的现代地理分布，讨论了各属的分化和系统关系。认为根据传统分类包括有7个属的天仙子族是一个自然的单系类群，目前还没有足够的证据说明是否应该将颠茄属和茄参属放在天仙子族中。

绣球族的系统学研究

绣球科绣球族包含9属：草绣球属、叉叶蓝属、Broussaisia、常山属、绣球属、蛛网萼属、赤壁木属、冠盖藤属和钻地风属。到目前为止，绣球族内的属间关系还不清楚，族内的系统发育关系还有争论。本研究的目的是在前人研究的基础上，进一步发现新的系统学性状，为绣球族乃至绣球科补充新的证据;并综合多学科的研究结果进行分析，探讨绣球族的系统学关系。 本文研究了绣球族的外部形态学、花发育形态学、解剖学、分子系统学和分支系统学。 主要内容包括： 1. 形态学 通过标本室研究和野外观察，对绣球族植物的形态分化进行了分析。发现习性、地上茎的生存期限、花冠卷叠式、花瓣联合与否、花柱的联合程度、雄蕊的数目及排列具有系统学价值;放射花和果实是很好的分类性状，但并非可靠的系统学性状。 2. 花发育形态学 在扫描电子显微镜下，研究了绣球族常山属、绣球属、冠盖藤属、蛛网萼属共4种植物花器官发生和发育的全过程。发现它们的花萼均为螺旋式相继发生，花瓣的发生近乎同时。冠盖藤、马桑绣球及常山具两轮雄蕊，第一轮雄蕊发生于花瓣内轮正对萼片中部的位置，随后第二轮雄蕊发生于正对花瓣中部的位置。在第一轮雄蕊略靠内的位置形成第二轮雄蕊的时候，多数情况下，相邻的对萼雄蕊之间只形成1个对瓣雄蕊，但有时却形成2个对瓣雄蕊，使雄蕊群的数目略多于花被的数目。对萼雄蕊与对瓣雄蕊的分化方式基本一致，但它们在花芽中空间取向不同。 蛛网萼雄蕊数目极多，雄蕊群的发生式样较为独特，并不始于对萼三联体。最早的雄蕊于杯状体近基部发生，之后雄蕊的发生大致沿杯状体壁向上，具离心趋势。在雄蕊发生过程中杯状体继续伸长，为众多雄蕊的发生提供了空间。蛛网萼雌蕊的发生明显早于雄蕊，其它3种植物雌蕊的发生晚于雄蕊。4种植物的雌蕊在发生上较为相似，发育却不同。在常山、马桑绣球和蛛网萼中，花柱从开始到发育成熟始终分离，柱头在每个花柱的顶端形成;而冠盖藤属的花柱裂片从开始就是联合的，最终形成单一的花柱，柱头从合生花柱顶端远轴面分化形成。 3. 解剖学 在光学显微镜和扫描电子显微镜下，观察了绣球族9属42种1变种及近缘8属11种共53种1变种的叶表皮特征。发现气孔的分布、气孔器的类型、表皮细胞的形状及其垂周壁式样、毛被等具有一定的系统学意义和分类价值。绣球族各属的气孔仅散生于下表皮;而在绣球族的几个近缘属中，上下表皮均有气孔分布。气孔器在多数类群中为无规则型，仅常山属和绣球属离瓣组的成员为平列型。气孔多为椭圆形，稀近圆形;外拱盖表面通常光滑，仅在钻地风属中具条状纹饰;外拱盖内缘具环状加厚，近全缘、不规则波状或浅波状。表皮细胞在多数种中为不规则形，垂周壁波状、浅波状或深波状;在有些种中为（近）多边形，垂周壁平直或弓形。叶表皮细胞形状、垂周壁式样在绣球族寡种属属级水平比较稳定，但在绣球属中变化较大。表皮角质膜纹饰形态多样，有网纹、粗网纹、浅波状条纹、波状条纹、条纹、粗条纹及丝状条纹;在钻地风属及绣球属的少数种中，角质膜条纹有时汇集呈球形或玫瑰型。表皮毛状附属物有单细胞2分枝毛（黄山梅属）、多细胞星状毛（星毛冠盖藤）、单细胞星状毛（溲疏属）和单细胞不分枝毛四种。对钻地风属所有种的观察结果表明，仅在椭圆钻地风的下表皮细胞中央观察到乳突状结构，而在白背钻地风和圆叶钻地风中并未观察到前人描述的附属物。 4. 叶绿体DNA trnL-F序列的分析 首次对绣球族9属23种及近缘类群3属3种的trnL-F序列进行了测定。序列长度在860 bp~970 bp范围内变化。在以山梅花属、溲疏属和黄山梅属为外类群，基于trnL-F序列构建的系统树上，绣球族作为一个单系群得到很高的支持率。绣球属的种出现在不同的分支上，表明该属不是一个单系群。绣球族被分为两大支：第一支由绣球属离瓣组的中国绣球、绣球、以及常山和Broussaisia arguta组成;第二支由绣球属另外的9个种与草绣球属、叉叶蓝属、蛛网萼属、赤壁木属、冠盖藤属以及钻地风属组成。在第二支中，下列类群的近缘关系得到支持：① 草绣球与叉叶蓝属;② 绣球属挂苦子组的东陵绣球、圆锥绣球和挂苦绣球。③ 钻地风属、赤壁木属和冠盖藤属;④ 蜡莲绣球、莼兰绣球、马桑绣球、粗枝绣球。 5. 分支分析 以山梅花属为外类群，基于形态、解剖、花发育、孢粉等32个性状（或性状状态）对绣球族9属的系统发育关系进行了分支分析。结果表明：草绣球属和叉叶蓝属为基出类群，这两个属有多个共同特征;绣球族其余的成员聚成一支，该支又有5个分支。其中蛛网萼属和绣球属冠盖组各为单独的分支，它们有多个自衍征，可能有各自独立的演化线;绣球属离瓣组与常山属聚成一分支，二者的密切关系得到解剖学证据的支持;绣球属绣球组和星毛组聚成一分支，这两个组包含了绣球属的多数种类;钻地风属、赤壁木属、冠盖藤属、Broussaisia和绣球属挂苦子组聚成一分支。其中钻地风属、赤壁木属与冠盖藤属具多个近裔衍征，表明它们是绣球族的晚出类群。 通过对绣球族植物外部形态、花器官发生、叶表皮微形态特征、叶绿体DNA trnL-F区的研究以及基于形态性状的分支分析，并综合已有的研究结果，我们认为： 1. 绣球族是一个单系群;绣球属不是一个单系群。 2. 在绣球族中，草绣球属和叉叶蓝属关系密切，它们可能是绣球族其余成员的姐妹群。 3. 绣球组和星毛组可能是绣球属的核心成员;离瓣组和常山属关系密切;冠盖组有单独的演化线。 4. 赤壁木属、冠盖藤属和钻地风属为单系群，它们在绣球族处于较高的演化位置。 5. 绣球属需重新界定。

壳斗目的系统发育研究

本文采用来自三个基因组——叶绿体、线粒体和核基因组的六个DNA序列片段，对壳斗目的系统发育进行了重建，主要探讨了壳斗目八个科的科间系统演化关系及不同基因系统树间存在冲突的原因。在此基础上针对具体问题，进一步选用核光敏色素PHYC基因序列对杨梅科在壳斗目中的系统位置进行了更深入的探讨。在对壳斗目开展大量分子系统学研究的同时，还对胡桃科化香树属Platycarya的花形态发生过程进行了详细的扫描电镜观察，讨论了胡桃科单性花的起源和演化问题。主要内容包括： 1 基于四个叶绿体DNA序列的分析 以金缕梅属Hamamelis 和朴树属Celtis 为外类群，对壳斗目几乎所有属的代表共31种植物的trnL-F、matK、rbcL和atpB 序列进行了测定，通过四个序列单独和联合分析，得到如下结果：除rbcL基因树由于信息位点少而分辨率较低之外，壳斗目各科作为单系类群在各种分析中都得到了较强的bootstrap（BS）支持。壳斗目的八个科分为三支：南青冈科Nothofagaceae是基部分支;壳斗科Fagaceae接着分出;核心高等金缕梅类 (core “higher” hamamelids) 聚为一支, 这三支也都得到了强支持。基于不同序列构建的系统发育树，主要区别在于对核心高等金缕梅类六个科，即第三支内部分支关系分辨的不同。在trnL-F树上核心高等金缕梅类又分成两个亚支，一亚支是木麻黄科Casuarinaceae－(桦木科Betulaceae－核果桦科Ticodendraceae)，另一亚支是杨梅科Myricaceae－(胡桃科Juglandaceae－马尾树科Rhoipteleaceae);matK树上，杨梅科则与前一亚支，即木麻黄科和桦木科聚在了一起;atpB树上杨梅科又成了其他所有核心高等金缕梅类的姐妹群;基于四序列联合分析构建的系统发育树的拓扑结构基本上与matK基因树一致。胡桃科和马尾树科的亲缘关系在对不同序列的分析中都得到了较强的支持，但对杨梅科的聚类，支持率都很弱。 2 基于线粒体matR基因序列的分析 除南青冈科作为其他所有壳斗目类群的姐妹群得到强支持外，其余的壳斗目的科间系统发育关系都未得到很好的分辨。最简约树的严格一致树显示杨梅科和木麻黄科聚在一起得到的BS支持不强，另外桦木科和核果桦科，壳斗科和马尾树科分别聚在一起，但得到的支持都未超过50%。 3 基于核核糖体18S rDNA序列的分析 在18S rRNA基因最简约树的严格一致树上，壳斗目被分为两支，一支由壳斗科和南青冈科组成，另一支由核心高等金缕梅类组成，BS支持率均不高。核心高等金缕梅类又分成两个亚支，桦木科，核果桦科和木麻黄科组成的亚支得到了较强的支持，由胡桃科、马尾树科和杨梅科组成的另一亚支得到了更强的BS支持。胡桃科和桦木科的单系性都得到了分辨，虽然BS支持率不高。 4 六个DNA序列的联合分析 通过对六个DNA序列的单独和联合分析，探讨了引起基因树间拓扑结构冲突的可能原因。分别用MP法、NJ法和贝叶斯推论对壳斗目进行了系统发育重建，联合分析提供了分辨率最好、支持率最高的壳斗目谱系关系图： 1、 南青冈科是壳斗目其余类群的姐妹群;2、各科的单系性得到很好支持;3、壳斗科是核心高等金缕梅类的姐妹群;4、核心高等金缕梅类分为两个亚支，一亚支包含桦木科、核果桦科和木麻黄科;另一亚支由胡桃科、马尾树科和杨梅科组成，杨梅科是胡桃科和马尾树科的姐妹群，这一亚支的BS支持率仍然很弱。胡桃科和壳斗科的属间关系未得到很好分辨，多数分支的BS支持率和后验概率值都不高。 5 基于核PHYC基因序列证据对杨梅科系统位置的分析 用壳斗科的栎属Quercus和南青冈科的南青冈属Nothofagus做外类群，核心高等金缕梅类分为两支。桦木科和木麻黄科聚在一起，胡桃科和马尾树科为姐妹群再与杨梅科构成一支，这两个分支都得到很强的BS支持。核基因分析支持六个序列联合分析对核心高等金缕梅类各科间关系的分辨。 6 化香树的花器官发生 在扫描电镜下系统地研究了柔荑花序类植物化香树的雄花、雌花和两性花的发生和发育过程。结果表明：该植物雄花和两性花中小苞片和花被片缺乏;雄蕊轮状发生，成熟阶段雄蕊的不规则排列是由于花托的延伸且和苞片的基部融合后造成的;雌花中存在环状的花被片结构但极度退化，雌花两侧的小苞片和花被片的侧面部分构成小坚果的翅;化香树的两性花向心发生，雄蕊先发生，然后雌蕊发生。胡桃科中的单性花是由两性花退化而来。 本研究的主要发现和结论如下： 1第一次用来自不同基因组的多个DNA 序列探讨了壳斗目八科的系统发育关系;取样包括了所有科的几乎所有的属;所得到的系统树具有较高的分辨率和置信度。主要结论是壳斗目的八个科分为三支，南青冈科是最基部的分支，壳斗科做为核心高等金缕梅类的姐妹群第二个分出，核心高等金缕梅类聚在一起，并进一步分为两个亚支：第一亚支包括桦木科、核果桦科和木麻黄科;另一亚支则由胡桃科、马尾树科和杨梅科组成，杨梅科是胡桃科和马尾树科的姐妹群。 2用核光敏色素PHYC基因较好的解决了杨梅科的系统位置，尽管造成杨梅科在叶绿体基因树和核基因树上具有不同系统位置的原因尚需要进一步探讨。在PHYC基因树上桦木科和木麻黄科聚在一起，胡桃科和马尾树科为姐妹群再与杨梅科构成一支，这两个分支都得到很强的支持。 3首次在壳斗目植物中用扫描电镜观察到了雄花的发生过程和两性花的发生方式，澄清了在化香树属植物中关于雄蕊排列方式、花被式样、以及果翅来源等问题的疑惑或争论。

旌节花科的分类和系统学研究

旌节花科是东亚特有科，仅有旌节花属1属。本文研究了该科植物的生活习性、外部形态、花粉形态和外壁超微结构以及花器官发生，并根据多个DNA区段的序列探讨了科的系统位置和属下关系。在此基础上，综合各方面的证据，对旌节花科进行了全面的分类学修订，完善了该科的分类系统。主要内容包括： 　　1、习性和外部形态学 　　结合室内标本和野外考察，对旌节花科植物的生活习性、叶、花序、花和果实各个性状的变异式样、变异幅度、变异规律及其相关性进行了深入研究，并讨论了它们的分类学价值。结果表明：叶片形状、叶缘齿、花序下的叶片是否宿存以及花序是否具花序梗等性状在种间变异非常大，单个性状对旌节花属属下分类意义不大;而叶片毛被、脉序和结构，花序长度，花的大小和颜色以及果实大小等性状通常较稳定，可作为旌节花属划分种和变种的重要依据。 　　2、花粉形态学和外壁超微结构 　　在透射电镜下研究了旌节花属5个代表种和1个外类群（Crossosoma californicum）的花粉外壁超微结构，并在扫描电镜下研究了外类群Crossosomataceae 1个代表种（Crossosoma californicum）的花粉形态学特征，结合前人的研究，探讨了上述性状的分类学意义。结果表明：旌节花属植物花粉形态的共同特征是：花粉粒球形或近球形，三孔沟;外壁具穴状纹饰，穴较细小;外壁内壁分层明显，容易区分（柳叶旌节花除外），覆盖层光滑，几无附属物，柱状层明显，穿孔较少，不形成半覆盖层。各种植物花粉外壁超微结构的特征在旌节花属两个组中较一致，但其差异可作为探讨属下种的分类和系统学关系的依据。此外，对旌节花科和Crossosomataceae花粉表面纹饰和外壁超微结构的研究结果提示：这两个科与省沽油科和山茶科厚皮香亚科有较近缘的关系，而不支持这两个科的姐妹群关系。 　　3、花器官发生 　　首次对旌节花属常绿组和落叶组共2个代表种的花器官发生进行了研究，结果表明：该科植物花为功能性单性花，雌雄异株，花发育过程长达10个月，其中2-3个月是冬季休眠期。在花发育早期，雄花和雌花的发育没有差异，花性别的分化发生在花发育后期，即每年春天花开前后的2-3天，雌花中雌蕊的子房开始膨大，柱头伸长，胚珠多数，能育，而雄蕊逐渐干瘪收缩直至最后花粉不育;此时雄花的雄蕊发育良好，花丝粗壮发达，花药饱满，花粉能育，而雌蕊发育逐渐停滞直至败育。花器官发生方式为向心式，发生顺序为：苞片—外轮萼片—内轮萼片—花瓣—外轮雄蕊—内轮雄蕊—雌蕊。花萼4枚，两轮，交互对生，花瓣和雄蕊均4枚一轮几乎同时发生，花瓣覆瓦状排列。旌节花属常绿组和落叶组植物的花器官发生发育过程没有差别。 　　4、基于多个DNA区段序列的系统发育分析 　　首次选取进化速率较快的5个DNA区段：核核糖体ITS区和叶绿体rps16, ndhF，trnL-F及trnS-G-G区段，对旌节花属分别代表常绿组和落叶组的10种2变种及外类群Crossosomataceae和省沽油科3种植物的相关序列进行测定，并将上述序列合并构建系统树。研究结果表明：旌节花科作为一个单系群得到很好的支持。旌节花属落叶组和常绿组的划分在基于ITS、叶绿体4个区段单独分析及联合分析得到的系统树中没有得到支持，表现在该联合分析得到的树的两个分支与该属植物的习性和外部形态特征无关，而与它们的地理分布密切相关：其中一支主要分布在东亚的偏北部，另一支主要分布在东亚的南部地区，常绿和落叶的种类则混合在这两支中。此外，分子序列分析的结果对该属植物的分类、系统关系、起源和该科的系统位置均有重要意义。系统树显示出分布于台湾的S. sigeyosii与分布于日本的早春旌节花聚成稳定的一支，说明前者与后者，而不是与西域旌节花关系密切。叶绿体基因树与核基因树存在冲突，表明该属经历过网状进化。推测变种披针叶旌节花与云南旌节花可能是杂交起源。根据叶绿体rbcL序列得出的系统树显示旌节花科与产北美的Crossosomataceae的姊妹群关系支持率低于50%。基于最大似然树，运用罚分似然法推算出这两个科分化时间为68.25 ± 10.36 MYA，这两者共同与省沽油科近缘。 　　5、分类学研究 　　综合上述研究结果，对旌节花属进行了分类学修订。属下不设立组;确认该属植物有6种6变种，其中中国特有种3个，变种3个。5种5变种被作为新异名，新组合3个，其中2个改级新组合。对西域旌节花、云南旌节花和滇缅旌节花等进行了模式指定。本文还给出了分种和变种检索表、各类群的形态学描述、地理分布图、标本引证和讨论等。