内蒙古典型草原群落SPAC系统水运动的观测与仿真

草原不仅是陆地生态系统重要的一种类型，而且是人类赖以生存的畜牧业基地。由于草原多处于半干旱区，所以研究草原生态系统的水循环、水利用非常重要。本文对我国内蒙古草原区一个典型的群落－羊草群落的水分运动特征进行了定位观测，并在对这些观测结果进行分析的基础上，对土壤－植物－大气连续体（Soil-Plant-Atomosphere Continuum, SPAC）内的水流运动过程进行了仿真。 气孔是草原生态系统SPAC水流运动中最大的阻力项，是制约SPAC内水流通量的“瓶颈”，因此要想对该系统进行仿真首先必须建立精确的气孔导度（阻力）模型。根据1998～1999观测，羊草气孔导度主要受0～40cm土壤含水量的影响，在日的时间尺度上，用普通的线性回归模型对日均气孔导度就可以实现精确的预测，R~2可以达到96％，但是在小时的时间尺度上，仅用0～40cm土壤含水量是不够的，必须同时考虑其它环境因子的作用、构建具有一定机理基础的模型才能达到较为理想的模拟精度。现有的具有机理性质的气孔导度模型大致可以分为“Jarvis-类”和“BWB模型”（或“光合－导度”模型）。但是它们都没有充分考虑土壤水分因素对气孔导度的重要作用，所以这不符和草原区的实际情况。本文构建了一个考虑土壤水分因素的气孔导度模型，并分析了环境因素之间的互作对气孔导度的影响程度，最后这个模型被应用到了SPAC系统能量平衡和蒸散过程的模拟中去。 在降水量正常的情况下，例如1999年（年降水量344mm），羊草群落的显热通量明显高于潜热通量;在特别干旱的情况下，例如 1997年（年降水量仅280mm左右），白天甚至可能出现潜热的逆向传递;但是在湿润的年份，例如1998年（年降水量507mm），潜热通量却与显热通量相当。 在模拟植物蒸腾和群落的蒸散时需要分析叶片和冠层能量平衡，此时，往往需要简化处理，为了使这种简化更符合实际情况，所以根据羊草叶片红外辐射温度的实测结果，对羊草叶片上的能量平衡进行了分析。结果表明，太阳短波辐射对叶片能量总收入的贡献率小于30％，而来自地表和天空的长波辐射却古总收入的约74％。叶片的热辐射为双向，占叶片能量总支出的约90％。显热与潜热交换的总和才占叶片能量总支出的10％，而且在所测的时间点上两者的平均值相近，各占5％左右。在能量平衡的各分量中，长波辐射部分表现为净支出，因而可以假设短波辐射为叶片的唯一能量来源。此时，热辐射消耗其中的59％，显热潜热消耗40.1％。 将冠层分成上中下三层，分别模拟了这三层叶片以及土壤表面的能量平衡动态。与实测的各层红外辐射温度进行了对比，发现模型预测的冠层温度值与实测值的相关性良好，但是对中下层叶片温度的预测偏低。对土壤表面温度的模拟效果不好。 由于1998年降水量很大，根据蒸渗仪的观测，2m土体出现了渗漏。渗漏的出现，使得生长季末0～2m土壤贮水量与生长季初相比不但没有增加，反而减少。由于渗漏使得80～120cm土层内的粗细交界面得以贯通，该层对其上层土壤水头的蓄持能力下降，所以在1999年即使降雨强度不大也会造成渗漏的再次发生，这使得1999年生长季各月份水分平衡表现为较大的净支出。因此，实现SPAC水流成功模拟应该考虑土壤质地的成层性，以及渗漏的问题。 根据1998年波文比、涡度相关和蒸发渗漏仪联合实验的结果，对三种方法监测内蒙古草原群落蒸散的适用性进行了分析。三种仪器逐时、逐日蒸散回归关系极显著（P＝0.000），但是涡度相关的测量值往往低于其它两者。分析认为蒸发渗漏仪在逐日或者更长的取样时间间隔上能够达到足够的精度，适合于作为长期监测内蒙古草原群落蒸散量的工具，但是，由于受风压等随机因素的影响，不适用于逐时或逐分的测量。波文比在无对流逆温的天气里可以精确地测定逐刻和逐时的潜热通量，适合于作为短期的监测工具，但在更复杂的气象条件下波动幅度较涡度相关大。涡度相关法能在较复杂的天气条件下稳定地反映逐刻、逐时和逐日的潜热通量变化。但是，在内蒙古草原区现实的野外条件下，涡度相关法尚难以作为长期蒸散监测的工具。 除了对上述三,种观测方法进行比对外，还有波文比与Penman-Moteith公式、涡度相关法与Penman-Moteith公式对蒸散的监测进行了对比，发现Penman-Monteith公式在1998和1999年都低估了蒸散。分析认为，对总蒸散的低估可能来自对土表蒸发的低估。 本文最后还对SPAC系统水流各部分的模拟进行了整合，希望得到一个对整个系统的水流循环进行动态仿真的模型。

森林流域单元水文模型的构建与应用

目前全球缺水、水污染、洪涝灾害以及水土流失仍然非常严重，尤其在我国北方地区。流域水文模型可用来进行不同需水管理的情景分析，为解决我国水问题提供科学依据。分布式水文模型是流域水文模型的发展方向，具有显著特点：1）应用前景广泛，不仅可以模拟流域水文过程，还可以协助模拟泥沙或污染物的运移过程，为水利工程设计、水土保持、环境保护等领域提供技术支持；2）能够预测流域土地利用或气候变化下的流域水文响应过程变化，为管理部门提供决策支持；3）模型所需要的参数全部具有物理意义，可通过实际测量确定，适合模拟实测系列较短或是无观测流域的水文过程；4）对于目前国际水文界的前沿问题—水文尺度转换提供了一种有效的解决途径。 然而分布式水文模型还不完善，如1)真实性问题。对一些水文过程和边界条件还不确定。2)尺度转换问题。目前很少考虑尺度对参数有效性的影响。3)检验问题。还无法判断对有些难以测量的水文状态变量的模拟正确与否。4)计算时间和数据存储的问题。有些分布式水文模型虽然具有很强的水文物理基础和完善的模型结构，但是计算时间过长和(或)数据存储过大，难以应用。上述问题的核心就是对分布式水文模型的核心—单元水文模型的研究不够，需要为进一步完善单元水文模型进行研究。 本文采用饱和入渗理论、Saint-Venant方程、Richards方程、Penman-Monteith方程等等构建了以有限差分法求解的适用于森林流域的单元水文模型，并通过实验室模拟试验和坡地径流场资料进行了验证，主要结论为： 通过不同坡度和不同雨强下的室内坡面产汇流实验模拟，表明：该模型模拟的坡面流和壤中流过程与实测过程基本一致，峰现时间、径流历时、峰值流量、出流总量模拟值与实测值的相对误差均较小，基本小于10%。模型的模拟精度较高，实用性较强，为深入研究壤中流机制和改进流域降雨-径流模型提供了理论依据。 通过坡地径流观测场实测资料的验证，表明：该模型模拟的坡面流过程精度较高，累计流量的精度更高于小时过程的精度，离差系数、效率系数、确定系数均较理想，具有应用价值，有助于改善分布式水文模型在森林流域的模拟效果。

丘陵半干旱区春小麦耗水特征与水分高效利用

该文利用Penman-Monteith公式和田间灌溉试验，对丘陵半干旱区春小麦的需水耗水特征进行了计算分析，并利用旱棚和田间试验、数理统计和系统分析等方法，对冬灌和涌流灌溉的节水效果、喷灌制度和喷灌水量分布、水肥耦合互馈作用、有限水量的最优分配等进行了综合研究.通过模拟寻优得出了春小麦不同产量水平下的水肥管理优化方案.以Jensen模型为基础，利用动态规划确定了不同初始土壤含水量和可利用灌溉水量下的最优分配决策.

北方稻田蒸散需水分析及其作物系数确定

利用PenmanMonteith方程估算了中国北方下辽河平原地区52年(1951～2002)的潜在蒸散量,分析了潜在蒸散的年际动态变化规律;在中国科学院沈阳生态实验站的水田实验地上,利用非称重式蒸渗仪对充分供水条件下同一水稻品种稻田蒸散量进行了测定,在此基础上确定了水稻作物系数.结果表明,在北方下辽河平原地区稻田蒸散量变化在581～695mm之间,年际变率为24%.无论是湿润年还是干旱年,由于受降雨量及其时间分配不均的影响,在该地区水稻生产中都需要有灌溉水补充.整个生育期水稻作物系数多年(1993～2002)平均值为132,水稻生育期内作物系数基本符合二次曲线趋势变化.

长白山阔叶红松林降雨截留量的估算

林冠截留降雨过程是森林流域水分循环的重要组成部分,以往的研究多为1次或多次降雨量与截留量的关系,很少考虑雨强和树木特征.文中利用林冠截留降雨半经验半理论模型,以雨强和叶面积指数为模型输入,林冠湿润程度为参数,结合Penman-Monteith公式,有效地模拟了长白山阔叶红松林次降雨的截留过程和2004年5~9月的林冠截留总量.结果表明,研究期间的林冠截留总量为39·96mm,占降雨总量的10·2%,与实测资料吻合.根据模拟结果,探讨了不同时间尺度上截留量与降雨量之间的关系,随着时间尺度的增大,截留量与降雨量的相关关系趋于明显.

大兴安岭北坡参考植物蒸发蒸腾的经验公式

使用时间序列分析对大兴安岭北坡大片连续多年冻土区小流域参考植物的蒸发蒸腾进行了探讨。从年内变化规律来看,参考植物的蒸发蒸腾(ET0)呈现明显的周期性波动。蒸发蒸腾从年初开始不断增加,至7月前后达到最大值,之后逐渐减少,到年末降至最低。ET0与太阳净辐射(Rn)、白昼长度(N)分别具有明显的相关关系,利用2年气象数据建立了阿木尔流域ET0与太阳净辐射、白昼长度之间的线性关系式:ET0=0.260Rn-0.036N+0.422,可为进一步研究冻土植被的生态水文过程提供参考。

陕北山地红枣集雨微灌技术集成与示范

陕北山地红枣集雨微灌技术综合集成了坡地降雨径流调控技术、山地红枣矮化密植栽培技术及修剪技术,在对微灌技术进行创新的基础上,形成了黄土高原山地红枣微灌技术体系,并在黄土高原丘陵沟壑区第一附区——陕西省榆林市米脂县创建了技术体系应用实体样板,该样板地红枣平均产量达到19 800 kg/hm2,较无灌溉条件(产量4 500~6 000 kg/hm2)增产2~3倍,较管灌条件(产量一般为12 000~15 000 kg/hm2)增产30%~60%,且节水36%以上。在单项技术研究方面,利用Penman-Monteith公式确定了红枣生育期理论耗水量(438.8mm);通过不同灌水量处理的田间试验,初步确定出合理的灌水量区间为396~1 320 m3/hm2;提出了坡地低压滴灌工程新的设计理论,即微地形影响下的均匀度计算方法、滴头设计工作压力取值理论及毛管设计新方法;在此基础上,提出了坡上部采用三项配套技术+低压滴灌、坡下部采用三项配套技术+涌泉根灌+雾喷的工程模式。

不同光照条件下作物蒸腾量计算的研究

作物蒸腾量的计算是水资源开发利用和农业生产运筹的关键参数之一 .本文以彭曼 -蒙特斯方程为基础 ,通过引入临界阻力 ,根据实测资料建立冠层阻力和空气动力学阻力比值与临界阻力和空气动力学阻力比值二者之间的函数关系 ,得到一个只需气象参数就能计算作物蒸腾量的简单方法 .文章对该方法进行了理论分析 ,并用实例给予验证 .结果表明 ,该方法在理论上和实践上都是可行的 ,是一个值得研究和发展的新方法 .作物蒸腾量的日变化表明 ,炎热夏季晴天中午遮光处理后作物蒸腾量的增大是可能的

GIS环境下1999～2000年中国东北参考作物蒸散量时空变化特征分析

为了实现农业持续发展和保护生态环境,该文应用Penman-Monteith公式和GIS的空间分析功能,通过建立区域参考作物蒸散量的空间分布模型计算了中国东北地区自20世纪90年代以来参考作物蒸散量的时空变化特征。研究发现,20世纪90年代东北地区5～9月份日平均蒸散量呈逐年增大趋势,并以每年0.04mm的速度递增;其中5、6、7、8、9各月份绝大部分地区日均蒸散量年变化呈增加的趋势,东北平原年增长超过0.05mm,≥0.4mm蒸散地区年平均增长面积为248.73万hm2。5月份和8月份大部分地区日均蒸散量呈减少的趋势,6、7、9月份大部分地区日均蒸散量呈增加的趋势。5月和8月蒸散量的减少以及6月到9月蒸散量的增加都由东北(三江平原)向西南(辽河平原)迁移,并在空间范围上表现出一定的收缩趋势。日均蒸散量≥0.4mm蒸散地区的重心呈有规律的波动,5～9月份平均重心年际波动主要位于呼伦贝尔高原和西辽河平原两个地区,5、6、7、8、9月份重心的波动轨迹基本为由西北—东北—西南地区,空间上也逐渐由较集中变为较分散。

Novo método para estimativa da evapotranspiração de referência com base na temperatura do ar.

A região de Jales, localizada no noroeste de São Paulo, é uma importante área produtora de uvas de mesa do Estado, onde predominam pequenas propriedades com mão-de-obra familiar. Em todos os vinhedos da região são empregados sistemas de irrigação, para suprir a deficiência hídrica que ocorre durante o ciclo produtivo da cultura. Para um manejo adequado da irrigação, são necessárias informações sobre a necessidade hídrica da cultura. A evapotranspiração de referência (ETo) é um parâmetro fundamental para a determinação dessa necessidade, sendo desejável que se tenha um método que estime a ETo com boa precisão e a partir de dados meteorológicos fáceis de serem obtidos (VILLA NOVA; PEREIRA, 2006). O método de Penman-Monteith é considerado, atualmente, como padrão para a estimativa de ETo. Para seu uso, entretanto, são necessárias variáveis meteorológicas nem sempre disponíveis, principalmente aos pequenos produtores. Por essa razão, métodos que empregam um menor número de variáveis são também utilizados para estimar a ETo. No presente trabalho foram calculados valores diários de ETo pelo método de Hargreaves original; e por um novo método, em que se emprega a equação de Bristow-Campbell para a estimativa de Rs. Esses valores foram comparados aos obtidos pelo método padrão de Penman-Monteith, nas condições do noroeste paulista.

Operating water balance model for agriculture (OWBA)

p.31-47

Irrigation scheduling for Sovereign Coronation grapevine based upon evapotranspiration calculations and crop coefficients /

Several irrigation treatments were evaluated on Sovereign Coronation table grapes at two sites over a 3-year period in the cool humid Niagara Peninsula of Ontario. Trials were conducted in the Hippie (Beamsville, ON) and the Lambert Vineyards (Niagara-on-the-Lake, ON) in 2003 to 2005 with the objective of assessing the usefulness of the modified Penman-Monteith equation to accurately schedule vine irrigation needs. Data (relative humidity, windspeed, solar radiation, and temperature) required to precisely calculate evapotranspiration (ETq) were downloaded from the Ontario Weather Network. One of two ETq values (either 100 or 150%) were used in combination with one of two crop coefficients (Kc; either fixed at 0.75 or 0.2 to 0.8 based upon increasing canopy volume) to calculate the amount of irrigation water required. Five irrigation treatments were: un irrigated control; (lOOET) X Kc =0.75; 150ET X Kc =0.75; lOOET X Kc =0.2-0.8; 150ET X Kc =0.2-0.8. Transpiration, water potential (v|/), and soil moisture data were collected each growing seasons. Yield component data was collected and berries from each treatment were analyzed for soluble solids (Brix), pH, titratable acidity (TA), anthocyanins, methyl anthranilate (MA), and total volatile esters (TVE). Irrigation showed a substantial positive effect on transpiration rate and soil moisture; the control treatment showed consistently lower transpiration and soil moisture over the 3 seasons. Transpiration appeared accurately reflect Sovereign Coronation grapevines water status. Soil moisture also accurately reflected level of irrigation. Moreover, irrigation showed impact of leaf \|/, which was more negative throughout the 3 seasons for vines that were not irrigated. Irrigation had a substantial positive effect on yield (kg/vine) and its various components (clusters/vine, cluster weight, and berries/cluster) in 2003 and 2005. Berry weights were higher under the irrigated treatments at both sites. Berry weight consistently appeared to be the main factor leading to these increased yields, as inconsistent responses were noted for some yield variables. Soluble solids was highest under the ET150 and ET100 treatments both with Kc at 0.75. Both pH and TA were highest under control treatments in 2003 and 2004, but highest under irrigated treatments in 2005. Anthocyanins and phenols were highest under the control treatments in 2003 and 2004, but highest under irrigated treatments in 2005. MA and TVE were highest under the ET150 treatments. Vine and soil water status measurements (soil moisture, leaf \|/, and transpiration) confirmed that irrigation was required for the summers of 2003 and 2005 due to dry weather in those years. They also partially supported the hypothesis that the Penman-Monteith equation is useful for calculating vineyard water needs. Both ET treatments gave clear evidence that irrigation could be effective in reducing water stress and for improving vine performance, yield and fruit composition. Use of properly scheduled irrigation was beneficial for Sovereign Coronation table grapes in the Niagara region. Findings herein should give growers some strong guidehnes on when, how and how much to irrigate their vineyards.

Comparison of different methods in estimating potential evapotranspiration at Muda Irrigation Scheme of Malaysia

Evapotranspiration (ET) is a complex process in the hydrological cycle that influences the quantity of runoff and thus the irrigation water requirements. Numerous methods have been developed to estimate potential evapotranspiration (PET). Unfortunately, most of the reliable PET methods are parameter rich models and therefore, not feasible for application in data scarce regions. On the other hand, accuracy and reliability of simple PET models vary widely according to regional climate conditions. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the performance of three temperature-based and three radiation-based simple ET methods in estimating historical ET and projecting future ET at Muda Irrigation Scheme at Kedah, Malaysia. The performance was measured by comparing those methods with the parameter intensive Penman-Monteith Method. It was found that radiation based methods gave better performance compared to temperature-based methods in estimation of ET in the study area. Future ET simulated from projected climate data obtained through statistical downscaling technique also showed that radiation-based methods can project closer ET values to that projected by Penman-Monteith Method. It is expected that the study will guide in selecting suitable methods for estimating and projecting ET in accordance to availability of meteorological data.

Estudo micrometeorológico de um cultivo de cana-de-açúcar em Alagoas

Este estudo foi desenvolvido dentro do projeto de pesquisa “Micrometeorologia da Mata Atlântica alagoana (MICROMA)” do Departamento de Meteorologia da Universidade Federal de Alagoas, que busca avaliar modificações no sistema solo-planta-atmosfera provocadas pela substituição da Mata Atlântica pela cultura da cana-de-açúcar, na Zona da Mata alagoana. O objetivo principal do presente estudo foi o ajuste do modelo de Penman-Monteith para o cálculo da evapotranspiração da cultura da cana-de-açúcar, na zona canavieira de Alagoas, a partir de determinações micrometeorológicas pelo método do balanço de energia, em diferentes estádios de desenvolvimento da cultura e em diferentes condições de demanda evaporativa atmosférica. A evapotranspiração foi estimada pelo método de Penman-Monteith e comparada com valores calculados através do balanço de energia, pela razão de Bowen, considerando este como método padrão. Medições micrometeorológicas foram feitas nos anos agrícolas de 1997/98 e 1998/99, em um área de 12,5ha de cultivo contínuo de cana-deaçúcar, cultivar SP 70-1143, sob condições de lavoura comercial, na Fazenda Vila Nova, município de Pilar, Alagoas (9o36´S, 35o53´W, 107m de altitude). Durante o período experimental, foram tomadas amostras quinzenais para determinar altura do dossel, comprimento de colmo, índice de área foliar e acúmulo de matéria seca (este apenas em 1998/99). Os parâmetros aerodinâmicos da cultura zo (comprimento de rugosidade) e d (deslocamento do plano zero) foram determinados a partir de perfis de vento, em condições de atmosfera neutra, e relacionados com a altura do dossel. Foram ajustados modelos para estimar o índice de área foliar e a altura do dossel da cultura em função do comprimento do colmo. O fracionamento do saldo de radiação no chamado “período potencial”, sem deficiência hídrica e com a cultura cobrindo completamente o solo, foi de 78% para o fluxo de calor latente de evaporação, 21% para o fluxo de calor sensível na atmosfera e aproximadamente 0,1% para o luxo de calor no solo. A estimativas pelo método de Penman-Monteith se ajustaram ao valores calculados pelo método do balanço de energia, tanto para médias qüinqüidiais (r = 0,93) como para valores diários (r = 0,91). Assim, dados confiáveis de evapotranspiração da cultura de cana-de-açúcar podem ser obtidos pelo método de Penman-Monteith ajustado neste trabalho, para a zona canavieira de Alagoas, em períodos sem deficiência hídrica e com cobertura completa do solo. O uso deste método apresenta a vantagem prática de requerer apenas dados meteorológicos, medidos em apenas um nível, em estações meteorológicas convencionais.

Coeficiente do tanque Classe A obtido por diferentes métodos em ambiente protegido e no campo

There are several methods for determining the Class-A pan coefficient (Kp) to estimate the reference evapotranspiration (ETo), which is of great importance to water management in agriculture. Most of these methods take into account the wind speed, relative humidity and the fetch area. This study was done in region of Botucatu, SP, in greenhouse and field in the months of July-August (dry) and September-October (rainy), used the methods of Doorenbos e Pruitt (1977), Cuenca (1989), Snyder (1992), Pereira et al. (1995), Allen et al. (1998) and correlation between ETo determined by Penman-Monteith (EToPM) and evaporation of the Class-A pan (ECA). The EToPM was used as standard for the correlations between the ETo determined by the Class-A pan (EToTCA) obtained by different methods of Kp. The Kp in greenhouse ranged between 0.51 and 0.85, and in the field from 0.33 to 0.85. The methods of Allen et al. (1998) and Snyder (1992) are the most recommended for dry months in greenhouse and rainy months the correlation between the ECA and EToPM e Cuenca (1989). In the field condition, the methods of Allen et al. (1998) and of correlation between the ECA and EToPM for dry months, and for rainy months of Allen et al. (1998) and Cuenca (1989). The method of Allen et al. (1998) was the most efficient, regardless of the environment and of months analyzed. The fixed value of Kp should only be used when it is not possible to determine from its more sophisticated methods.