领导行为的复杂性、角色结构及其有效性研究

As the social and organizational environment become more and more complex, the topic of leadership complexity is gaining more and more attention. So far, some critical issues in this field need further exploration, such as clarifying the theoretical framework, developing and validating the measurments and exploring the mechanism of the its effectiveness. Using BEI(Behavioral Event Interview), content analysis and EFA/CFA, ANOVA, regression analysis and other qualitative/quantitative methods, this research explored the leadership structure of Chinese enterprise managers, developed a new leadership questionnaire, investigated the differences of the leadership roles among various managerial areas and on different hirachical levels, and examined the impacts of the leadership roles and leadership complexity on different indicators of leadership effectiveness in various organizational contexts. 1,020 managers were surveyed. The followings are the main findings： First，the structure of leadership behaviors of Chinese enterprise managers included ethical model, authoritarian, producer, director, monitor, mentor, strategist, enterpriser, among which ethical model and authoritarian are the new findings in Chinese cultural context. Ethical model was characterized by presenting honesty, setting an example to others, being just and diligent. Authoritarian was characterized by showing power and arbitrariness. In addition, mentor, strategist and enterpriser incarnated some cultural features of present China. The new developed leadership questionnaire’s reliability and validity reached the criterion of standardized measurement. Second, there were significant differences of frequency of leadership behaviors among the managers at different managerial postions and hirachical levels, while the impacts of different leadership roles on different leadership effectiveness indicators were also singnificantly different. Ethical model had positive impacts on the whole performance and three indicators across task and context performance, and authoritarian’s impacts on the whole performance and department performance were negatively significant. Third, the impact of leadership complexity on the whole leadership effectiveness was positively significant, while the moderating effects of organization level and position function was not significant.

Job-demand for Learning and Job-related Learning: The Moderating Effect of Need For Achievement

Purpose – The purpose of the research is to examine whether need for achievement moderates the relationship between job-demand for learning and job-related learning. Design/methodology/approach – Data were obtained from 153 participants full-time. The scales for job-demand for learning and job-related learning were developed for this research, whilst the scale for need for achievement was obtained from an external source. Hierarchical regression analysis was used in testing the hypothesized moderating effects. Findings – It was found that need for achievement moderates the relationship between job-demand for learning and job-related learning. Specifically, although job-demand for learning is correlated positively to job-related learning for both the high and the low need for achievement groups, this correlation is stronger amongst the high group. Research limitations/implications – The use of a cross-sectional design in this study prohibits inferences being drawn regarding the causal relationships between job-demand for learning, need for achievement and job-related learning. Practical implications – Job-related learning can be facilitated through increasing the need for achievement by allowing employees to establish their own learning and performance goals rather than by imposing such goals on them. The redesign of jobs to create challenges for employees is an equally important practical consideration. Originality/value – This research provides a succinct view of the relationship between an external factor, job-demand for learning, and an internal motivator, need for achievement. It emphasizes the degree to which organizations can facilitate learning through design of challenging jobs, to the extent of the individuals’ motivation.

An examination of the effects of locus of control on perceptions of core job dimensions and job satisfaction

This study examined the moderating effects of locus of control on core job dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, feedback) and job satisfaction. Survey data were collected from 1995 educators in Southern Ontario. When core job dimensions were perceived to be high, job satisfaction scores were high. The converse relationship was also true; when core job dimensions were perceived to be low, job satisfaction scores were also low. As well, the investigation explored the effect of educators' locus of control of reinforcement on the relationship between core job dimensions and job satisfaction. Internals (N = 483-486) perceived more skill variety, more task identity, more task significance, more autonomy, more feedback and greater job satisfaction than externals (N = 626-629). However, contrary to expectation, the correlations between specific core job dimensions namely autonomy and feedback, were not systematically greater for internals compared to externals. In addition the findings reported here suggest some appropriate directions and strategies for measuring and increasing job satisfaction among teachers.

Mega-events and the "Showcase" effect: investigating the moderating influence of exposure to the 2004 Olympic games telecast and interest in the Olympic movement- an Australian perspective

Survey-based research explored the moderating effects of "exposure" to the Australian free-to-air telecast of Athens 2004 and "interest" in Olympic Games in developing behavioral intentions to visit Greece in the future. Differences were found between groups with low and high levels of exposure to the telecast, and also between groups with high levels of interest in the Olympic Games, but these were only marginal. When the combinatorial influences of these two variables were considered simultaneously, their effects were generally synergistic. The article calls for further research on this area of mega-events, as the results, while of significance, provide food to continue the broader debate on the role of mega-events in developing tourism to their host destinations after their staging.

Um análogo experimental de uma prática cultural: efeitos de um produto agregado contingente, mas não contíguo, sobre uma contigência de reforçamento entrelaçada

De acordo com o modo causal de seleção por consequências proposto por Skinner, o comportamento humano é o produto de processos seletivos em três níveis: filogênese, ontogênese e cultura. Investigações empíricas que se ocupem do terceiro nível apenas começam a ser realizadas na análise do comportamento. No campo teórico, Glenn introduziu o conceito de Metacontingência para enfocar relações funcionais entre contingências de reforçamento entrelaçadas e um produto agregado que seleciona o próprio entrelaçamento. Um trabalho pioneiro na reprodução em laboratório de uma metacontingência foi produzido por Vichi, a partir da adaptação de um método usado em estudos experimentais na sociologia. O estudo de Vichi sugere que o entrelaçamento dos comportamentos das pessoas de um pequeno grupo pôde ser modificado por produtos agregados que estes entrelaçamentos produziam, caracterizando uma Metacontingência. O presente trabalho consistiu de uma replicação do estudo de Vichi, com o objetivo de verificar se contingências comportamentais entrelaçadas podem de fato ser selecionadas e mantidas por um produto agregado contingente aos comportamentos dos membros de um pequeno grupo em uma microcultura de laboratório. Participaram da pesquisa oito alunos universitários, divididos em dois grupos de quatro, que realizaram uma tarefa em grupo. A tarefa consistiu em resolver um problema, escolhendo uma linha de uma matriz de 8 colunas por 8 fileiras, com sinais positivos e negativos. Os participantes escolhiam as linhas e o experimentador escolhia as colunas. Um sinal positivo na interseção das duas escolhas resultava em ganho para o grupo; um sinal negativo, em perda. A escolha da coluna pelo experimentador não foi aleatória, mas contingente ao modo de distribuição (igualitária ou desigual) dos ganhos pelo grupo na tentativa imediatamente anterior. Na condição experimental A, o acerto era contingente a distribuições igualitárias, já na condição experimental B, o acerto era contingente a distribuições desiguais. Os resultados mostram que o grupo 1 acertou 43% das jogadas (dividiu os recursos de acordo com a condição experimental que estava em vigor) e o grupo 2 acertou 19% das jogadas. Os resultados indicam que o fato do procedimento utilizar consequências (acertos ou erros) contingentes, porém não contíguas ao entrelaçamento do grupo, dificultou a seleção de tal entrelaçamento. Entretanto, contingências de reforçamento entrelaçadas foram selecionadas por seus produtos agregados sob controle de variáveis não controladas no experimento. Caracteriza-se este fenômeno enquanto um análogo experimental de uma metacontingência. Discute-se o procedimento utilizado, possíveis aprimoramentos deste e a complexidade da tarefa experimental, além, também, de discutir alguns padrões de regras supersticiosas que emergiram durante o experimento.

Rumors denials as persuasive messages: Effects of personal relevance, source, and message characteristics

Denial is a commonly used strategy to rebut a false rumor. However, there is a dearth of empirical research on the effectiveness of denials in combating rumors. Treating denials as persuasive messages, we conducted 3 laboratory-based simulation studies testing the overall effectiveness of denials in reducing belief and anxiety associated with an e-mail virus rumor. Under the framework of the elaboration likelihood model, we also tested the effects of denial message quality and source credibility, and the moderating effects of personal relevance. Overall, the results provided some support for the effectiveness of denials with strong arguments and an anxiety-alleviating tone in reducing rumor-related belief and anxiety. The effects of denial wording and source credibility were visible for participants who perceived high personal relevance of the topic. Limitations of the current research and future research directions are discussed.

An examination of moderator effects in the four-stage loyalty model

Oliver’s 1997 four-stage loyalty model proposes that loyalty consists of belief, affect, intention, and action. Although this loyalty model has recently been subject to empirical examination, the issue of moderator variables has been largely neglected. This article fills that void by analyzing the moderating effects of selected personal and situational characteristics, using a sample of 888 customers of a large do-it-yourself retailer. The results of multi-group causal analysis suggest that these moderators exert an influence on the development of the different stages of the loyalty sequence. Specifically, age, income, education and expertise, price orientation, critical incident recovery, and loyalty card membership are found to be important moderators of the links in the four-stage loyalty model. Limitations of the study are outlined, and implications for both research and managerial practice are discussed.

Senior management leadership, social support, job design and stressor-to-strain relationships in hospital practice

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of the quality of senior management leadership on social support and job design, whose main effects on strains, and moderating effects on work stressors-to-strains relationships were assessed. Design/methodology/approach: A survey involving distribution of questionnaires was carried out on a random sample of health care employees in acute hospital practice in the UK. The sample comprised 65,142 respondents. The work stressors tested were quantitative overload and hostile environment, whereas strains were measured through job satisfaction and turnover intentions. Structural equation modelling and moderated regression analyses were used in the analysis. Findings: Quality of senior management leadership explained 75 per cent and 94 per cent of the variance of social support and job design respectively, whereas work stressors explained 51 per cent of the variance of strains. Social support and job design predicted job satisfaction and turnover intentions, as well as moderated significantly the relationships between quantitative workload/hostility and job satisfaction/turnover intentions. Research limitations/implications: The findings are useful to management and to health employees working in acute/specialist hospitals. Further research could be done in other counties to take into account cultural differences and variations in health systems. The limitations included self-reported data and percept-percept bias due to same source data collection. Practical implications: The quality of senior management leaders in hospitals has an impact on the social environment, the support given to health employees, their job design, as well as work stressors and strains perceived. Originality/value: The study argues in favour of effective senior management leadership of hospitals, as well as ensuring adequate support structures and job design. The findings may be useful to health policy makers and human resources managers. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

The effects of store atmosphere on shopping behaviour - A literature review.

This paper provides an insight into how the atmospherics of a retail environment influence shopping behaviour. Its objective is to support researchers and practitioners by summarizing the current state of knowledge and identifying gaps and avenues for future research. The scope covers studies in retail marketing and environmental psychology published during the last 35 years. It has been shown that environmental cues (music, scent etc.) have an effect on the emotional state of the consumer, which in turn causes behavioural changes, both positive (approach, buy more, stay longer etc.) and negative (not approach, buy less, leave earlier etc.). Most studies make reference to the PAD model, which proposes that the relevant emotions in this process can be measured along three dimensions Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance (Mehrabian, A. & Russell, J.A.,1974, An approach to environmental psychology, Cambridge, MA.: MIT Press). Since then, significant advances have been made to understand the effect of individual cues, their interaction, as well as the role of moderators, such as gender, age, or shopping motivation. However, there are a number of opportunities for further research. Too little is known about the moderating effects of Arousal and Dominance and how they interact with each other and with Pleasure dimension. Also a number of other moderators, such as gender and culture, should be integrated into the model.

A study of moderating influences of adolescent alcohol drinking conditioned by perception of peer alcohol drinking

Despite a long history of prevention efforts and federal laws prohibiting the consumption of alcohol for those below the age of 21 years, underage drinking continues at both a high prevalence rate and high incidence rate. The purpose of this research study is to explain underage drinking of alcohol conditioned by perception of peer drinking. An acquisition model is conjectured and then a relationship within the model is explained with a national sample of students. From a developmental perspective, drinking alcohol is acquired in a reasonably ordered fashion that reflects the influences over time of the culture, family, and peers. The study measures perceptions of alcohol drinking during early adolescence when alcohol use begins the maintenance phase of the behavior. The correlation between drinking alcohol and perception of classmate drinking can be described via social learning theory. Simultaneously the moderating effects of grade level, gender, and race/ethnicity are used to explain differences between groups. Multilevel logistic regression was used to analyze the relations. The researcher found support for an association between adolescent drinking and perceptions of classmate drinking. Gender and grade level moderated the relation. African-Americans consistently demonstrated less drinking and less perception of classmate drinking than either whites or other students not white nor African-American. The importance of a better understanding of the process of acquiring drinking behaviors is discussed in relation to future research models with longitudinal data. ^

The effects of parental nurturance and involvement on peer relationships and psychosocial functioning of young adults

This study examined peer relationships and psychosocial functioning as a function of maternal and paternal involvement and nurturance along with the moderating effects of gender, family form, and ethnicity. Prior research has shown the influence of mother’s involvement on peer relationship quality but not of fathers. Further, previous studies did not examine moderation by family form, gender, or ethnicity. The sample consisted of 1359 students who identified their biological mother and father as the most influential parental figures in their lives. Their ages ranged from 18 to 26; Sixty-one percent of the sample was Hispanic, 13% non-Hispanic Black, 25% non-Hispanic White; 76% female and 70% from intact families. The analytical strategy included using bivariate correlations and structural equation modeling to examine these relationships. ^ All dimensions of maternal and paternal nurturing and involvement were positively related to positive characteristics of peer relationships, self-esteem and life satisfaction consistent with the multicultural findings of PARTheory (Rohner, Khalique, & Cournoyer, 2005). A structural model was developed that was able to adequately account for the relationship between parental influence, peer relationships, and psychosocial functioning. These effects of both maternal and paternal influence were strongly moderated by culture, family form, and gender. Finally, a differential effect was found among parental influence with fathers having a greater influence on friendship quality and importance than mothers, despite greater maternal involvement. ^ These findings have theoretical, clinical, and social implications as they call for a socially based theoretical perspective within which to study these relationships. Such a perspective would better inform clinicians when using impaired social functioning as indicative of axial diagnosis, and for the implementation of social policy to encourage paternal involvement. ^

An Examination of Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Individualism-Collectivsm as Moderators of the Work/Family Antecedent and Work-Family Conflict Relationship

This study examines the role of race, socioeconomic status, and individualism-collectivism as moderators of the relationship between selected work and family antecedents and work-family conflict and evaluates the contribution of energy-based conflict to the work-family conflict (WFC) research. The study uses data obtained from a survey questionnaire given to 414 participants recruited from an online labor market. Study hypotheses were tested through structural equation modeling. The results indicate that while moderating effects were slight, a proposed model where energy-based conflict is included outperforms traditional time/strain/behavior-based models and that established variables may drop to non-significance when additional variables are included in prediction. In addition, novel individual difference variables such as individualism and collectivism were demonstrated to have effects beyond moderating antecedent-outcome relationships in the model. The findings imply that WFC models would benefit from the inclusion of variables found in the current study.

The role of product involvement in e-service evaluations

This paper provides conceptual and empirical insights into consumers’ evaluations of online services and their consequent behavioural intentions. We show that behavioural intentions in online contexts are driven primarily by two factors, namely online service satisfaction and perceived service quality. Perceived sacrifice and service quality are found to have an indirect effect on online service satisfaction through their influences on perceived value associated with the online service. In addition, we examine the moderating effects of product involvement and discuss the implications of our research findings.

Service convenience and social servicescape : retail vs hedonic setting

Purpose – While there have been numerous studies on the antecedents and consequences of service quality, there has been little investigation of the moderators of service quality. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate the effects of two moderators: service convenience and the social servicescape. The moderating effects are tested in two service settings: retail and hedonic (concert). Design/methodology/approach – A survey of 270 customers at kitchen display showrooms and 320 concert-goers was undertaken. The results were analysed using regression analysis. Findings – The results show support for ten of the 12 hypotheses. Service convenience moderated the relationships between perceived service quality and its three sub-dimensions (interaction, environment, and outcome quality), differently in different settings (retail vs hedonic). This supports the authors' general argument that the outcome dimension tends to be more important to customers in a retail setting, while interaction and environment quality dimensions tend to be more important in hedonic service consumption. Practical implications – These findings suggest that managers need to use different service management tactics in retail and hedonic service settings. Specifically managers in retail settings need to pay more attention to service convenience to achieve service quality and managers in hedonic settings should concentrate on the social servicescape. Originality/value – This paper is the first to test the moderating factors of service convenience and social servicescape on service quality.

Concurrent and longitudinal links between children’s and their friends’ antisocial and prosocial behavior in preschool

Concurrent and longitudinal links between children’s own and their nominated best friends’ antisocial and prosocial behavior were studied in a normative sample of 3–5-year-olds (N = 203). Moderating effects of age and gender were also explored. Subscales of the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) were used to obtain teacher ratings of behavior for each target child and his/her nominated best friends. Nomination of best friends with higher levels of antisocial behavior and lower levels of prosocial behavior was concurrently linked to more antisocial behavior in boys. Nomination of highly prosocial best friends was concurrently linked to more prosocial behavior in both boys and girls. However, the study found no longitudinal effects of best friends’ behavior on target child’s behavior over a one-year period. A group of children who nominated no best friends at T1 were generally perceived as less prosocial, but not more antisocial, than other children. © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.