Organosolv pretreatment of plant biomass for enhanced enzymatic saccharification

The combination of dwindling petroleum reserves and population growth make the development of renewable energy and chemical resources more pressing than ever before. Plant biomass is the most abundant renewable source for energy and chemicals. Enzymes can selectively convert the polysaccharides in plant biomass into simple sugars which can then be upgraded to liquid fuels and platform chemicals using biological and/or chemical processes. Pretreatment is essential for efficient enzymatic saccharification of plant biomass and this article provides an overview of how organic solvent (organosolv) pretreatments affect the structure and chemistry of plant biomass, and how these changes enhance enzymatic saccharification. A comparison between organosolv pretreatments utilizing broadly different classes of solvents (i.e., low boiling point, high boiling point, and biphasic) is presented, with a focus on solvent recovery and formation of by-products. The reaction mechanisms that give rise to these by-products are investigated and strategies to minimize by-product formation are suggested. Finally, process simulations of organosolv pretreatments are compared and contrasted, and discussed in the context of an industrial-scale plant biomass to fermentable sugar process.

Sustainable life cycles of natural-precursor-derived nanocarbons

Sustainable societal and economic development relies on novel nanotechnologies that offer maximum efficiency at minimal environmental cost. Yet, it is very challenging to apply green chemistry approaches across the entire life cycle of nanotech products, from design and nanomaterial synthesis to utilization and disposal. Recently, novel, efficient methods based on nonequilibrium reactive plasma chemistries that minimize the process steps and dramatically reduce the use of expensive and hazardous reagents have been applied to low-cost natural and waste sources to produce value-added nanomaterials with a wide range of applications. This review discusses the distinctive effects of nonequilibrium reactive chemistries and how these effects can aid and advance the integration of sustainable chemistry into each stage of nanotech product life. Examples of the use of enabling plasma-based technologies in sustainable production and degradation of nanotech products are discussed—from selection of precursors derived from natural resources and their conversion into functional building units, to methods for green synthesis of useful naturally degradable carbon-based nanomaterials, to device operation and eventual disintegration into naturally degradable yet potentially reusable byproducts.

Probing the mechanism of benzaldehyde reduction to chiral hydrobenzoin on the CNT surface under near-UV light irradiation

Metal-free CNTs exhibit high activity (conversion rate 99.6%, 6 h) towards the synthesis of chiral hydrobenzoin from benzaldehyde under near-UV light irradiation (320–400 nm). The CNT structure before and after the reaction, the interaction between the molecule and the CNT surface, the intermediate products, the substitution effect and the influence of light on the reaction were examined using various techniques. A photo-excited conduction electron transfer (PECET) mechanism for the photocatalytic reduction using CNTs has been proposed. This finding provides a green photocatalytic route for the production of hydrobenzoin and highlights a potential photocatalytic application of CNTs.

Low carbon fuels and commodity chemicals from waste gases – systematic approach to understand energy metabolism in a model acetogen

Gas fermentation using acetogenic bacteria offers a promising route for the sustainable production of low carbon fuels and commodity chemicals from abundant, inexpensive C1 feedstocks including industrial waste gases, syngas, reformed methane or methanol. Clostridium autoethanogenum is a model gas fermenting acetogen that produces fuel ethanol and 2,3-butanediol, a precursor for nylon and rubber. Acetogens have already been used in large scale industrial fermentations, they are ubiquitous and known to play a prominent role in the global carbon cycle. Still, they are considered to live on the thermodynamic edge of life and potential energy constraints when growing on C1 gases pose a major challange for the commercial production of fuels and chemicals. We have developed a systematic platform to investigate acetogenic energy metabolism, exemplified here by experiments contrasting heterotrophic and autotrophic metabolism. The platform is built from complete omics technologies, augmented with genetic tools and complemented by a manually curated genome-scale mathematical model. Together the tools enable the design and development of new, energy efficient pathways and strains for the production of chemicals and advanced fuels via C1 gas fermentation. As a proof-of-platform, we investigated heterotrophic growth on fructose versus autotrophic growth on gas that demonstrate the role of the Rnf complex and Nfn complex in maintaining growth using the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway. Pyruvate carboxykinase was found to control the rate-limiting step of gluconeogenesis and a new specialized glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase was identified that potentially enhances anabolic capacity by reducing the amount of ATP consumed by gluconeogenesis. The results have been confirmed by the construction of mutant strains.

Electrocatalysis

Electrocatalysis is a core field of interfacial science because it involves enhancement of reaction rates as in the case of heterogeneous catalysis, with an additional control through the variation of electrode potential. Electrocatalytic rates are influenced by the electrode potential either directly or indirectly. Because of increasing significance of green chemistry and clean energy with an intimate relationship between heterogeneous electrocatalysis and electrochemical energy conversion (batteries and fuel cells), the field of electrocatalysis has grown rapidly. In this article, basic concepts of electrode kinetics to assess electrocatalysis, and catalytic aspects of a few important electrochemical reactions are reviewed.

Si-mediated fabrication of reduced graphene oxide and its hybrids for electrode materials

Here, we demonstrate a Si-mediated environmentally friendly reduction of graphene oxide (GO) and the fabrication of its hybrids with multiwall carbon nanotubes and nanofibers. The reduction of GO is facilitated by nascent hydrogen generated by the reaction between Si and KOH at similar to 60 degrees C. The overall process takes 5 to 7 minutes and 10 to 15 mu m of Si is consumed each time. We show that Si can be used multiple times and the rGO based hybrids can be used for electrode materials.

Prussian blue as a single precursor for synthesis of Fe/Fe3C encapsulated N-doped graphitic nanostructures as bi-functional catalysts

We report a unique, single source precursor Prussian blue (iron(III) ferrocyanide (Fe-4(III)Fe-II(CN)(6)](3))) for the synthesis of Fe/Fe3C nanoparticle encapsulated N-doped graphitic layers and bamboo-like graphitic nanotubes. Hollow N-doped graphite (N-HG) nanostructures are obtained when the encapsulated nanostructures are treated with an acid. Both the encapsulated nanostructures and N-HG are shown to be applicable as bi-functional electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reactions (OER). The ORR activity is shown to be improved for N-HG and is comparable to commercial Pt/C. On the other hand, encapsulated nanostructures exhibit OER activity with long-term stability comparable to commercial RuO2.

Prussian blue as a single precursor for synthesis of Fe/Fe3C encapsulated N-doped graphitic nanostructures as bi-functional catalysts

We report a unique, single source precursor Prussian blue (iron(III) ferrocyanide (Fe-4(III)Fe-II(CN)(6)](3))) for the synthesis of Fe/Fe3C nanoparticle encapsulated N-doped graphitic layers and bamboo-like graphitic nanotubes. Hollow N-doped graphite (N-HG) nanostructures are obtained when the encapsulated nanostructures are treated with an acid. Both the encapsulated nanostructures and N-HG are shown to be applicable as bi-functional electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction (ORR) and oxygen evolution reactions (OER). The ORR activity is shown to be improved for N-HG and is comparable to commercial Pt/C. On the other hand, encapsulated nanostructures exhibit OER activity with long-term stability comparable to commercial RuO2.

Nitrogen-assisted electroless assembling of 3D nanodendrites consisting of Pd and N-doped carbon nanoparticles as bifunctional catalysts

We report a facile synthesis of three-dimensional (3D) nanodendrites of Pd nanoparticles (NPs) and nitrogen-doped carbon NPs (N-CNPs) by electroless deposition of Pd2+ ions. N-CNPs being an electron-enriched material act as a reducing agent. Moreover, the availability of a variety of nitrogen species in N-CNPs promotes the open arm structure as well as stabilizes the oriented 3D assembly of primary Pd NPs. The dendrites exhibit superior catalytic activity for methanol (0.5 M) oxidation in alkaline media (1 M NaOH) which is ascribed to the large electrochemical active surface area and the enhanced mass activity with repeated use. Further mass activity improvement has been realized after acid-treatment of dendrites which is attributed to the increment in the -OH group. The dendrites show higher mass activity (J(f) similar to 653 A g(-1)) in comparison with a commercial Pt-carbon/Pd-carbon (Pt-C/Pd-C) catalyst (J(f) similar to 46 and 163 A g(-1), respectively), better operational stability, superior CO tolerance with I-f/I-b (similar to 3.7) over a commercial Pt-C/Pd-C catalyst (I-f/I-b similar to 1.6 and 1.75, respectively) and may serve as a promising alternative to commercial Pt-C catalysts for anode application in alkaline fuel cells. To ensure the adaptability of our 3D-nanodendrites for other catalytic activities, we studied 4-nitrophenol reduction at room temperature. The 3D-nanodendrites show excellent catalytic activity toward 4-nitrophenol reduction, as well.

Metalak eta metaloideak itsasadarretan: kutsadura jarraitzeko erreminta analitikoen

265 p.

Proton transfers at the air-water interface

Proton transfer reactions at the interface of water with hydrophobic media, such as air or lipids, are ubiquitous on our planet. These reactions orchestrate a host of vital phenomena in the environment including, for example, acidification of clouds, enzymatic catalysis, chemistries of aerosol and atmospheric gases, and bioenergetic transduction. Despite their importance, however, quantitative details underlying these interactions have remained unclear. Deeper insight into these interfacial reactions is also required in addressing challenges in green chemistry, improved water quality, self-assembly of materials, the next generation of micro-nanofluidics, adhesives, coatings, catalysts, and electrodes. This thesis describes experimental and theoretical investigation of proton transfer reactions at the air-water interface as a function of hydration gradients, electrochemical potential, and electrostatics. Since emerging insights hold at the lipid-water interface as well, this work is also expected to aid understanding of complex biological phenomena associated with proton migration across membranes.

Based on our current understanding, it is known that the physicochemical properties of the gas-phase water are drastically different from those of bulk water. For example, the gas-phase hydronium ion, H₃O⁺(g), can protonate most (non-alkane) organic species, whereas H₃O⁺(aq) can neutralize only relatively strong bases. Thus, to be able to understand and engineer water-hydrophobe interfaces, it is imperative to investigate this fluctuating region of molecular thickness wherein the ‘function’ of chemical species transitions from one phase to another via steep gradients in hydration, dielectric constant, and density. Aqueous interfaces are difficult to approach by current experimental techniques because designing experiments to specifically sample interfacial layers (< 1 nm thick) is an arduous task. While recent advances in surface-specific spectroscopies have provided valuable information regarding the structure of aqueous interfaces, but structure alone is inadequate to decipher the function. By similar analogy, theoretical predictions based on classical molecular dynamics have remained limited in their scope.

Recently, we have adapted an analytical electrospray ionization mass spectrometer (ESIMS) for probing reactions at the gas-liquid interface in real time. This technique is direct, surface-specific,and provides unambiguous mass-to-charge ratios of interfacial species. With this innovation, we have been able to investigate the following:

1. How do anions mediate proton transfers at the air-water interface?

2. What is the basis for the negative surface potential at the air-water interface?

3. What is the mechanism for catalysis ‘on-water’?

In addition to our experiments with the ESIMS, we applied quantum mechanics and molecular dynamics to simulate our experiments toward gaining insight at the molecular scale. Our results unambiguously demonstrated the role of electrostatic-reorganization of interfacial water during proton transfer events. With our experimental and theoretical results on the ‘superacidity’ of the surface of mildly acidic water, we also explored implications on atmospheric chemistry and green chemistry. Our most recent results explained the basis for the negative charge of the air-water interface and showed that the water-hydrophobe interface could serve as a site for enhanced autodissociation of water compared to the condensed phase.

Z-selective olefin metathesis using chelating ruthenium alkylidene catalysts

Publications about olefin metathesis will generally discuss how the discovery and development of well-defined catalysts to carry out this unique transformation have revolutionized many fields, from natural product and materials chemistry, to green chemistry and biology. However, until recently, an entire manifestation of this methodology had been inaccessible. Except for a few select examples, metathesis catalysts favor the thermodynamic trans- or E-olefin products in cross metathesis (CM), macrocyclic ring closing metathesis (mRCM), ring opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP), and many other types of reactions. Judicious choice of substrates had allowed for the direct synthesis of cis- or Z-olefins or species that could be converted upon further reaction, however the catalyst controlled synthesis of Z-olefins was not possible until very recently.

Research into the structure and stability of metallacyclobutane intermediates has led to the proposal of models to impart Z-selectivity in metathesis reactions. Having the ability to influence the orientation of metallacyclobutane substituents to cause productive formation of Z- double bonds using steric and electronic effects was highly desired. The first successful realization of this concept was by Schrock and Hoveyda et al. who synthesized monoaryloxide pyrolidine (MAP) complexes of tungsten and molybdenum that promoted Z-selective CM. The Z-selectivity of these catalysts was attributed to the difference in the size of the two axial ligands. This size difference influences the orientation of the substituents on the forming/incipient metallacyclobutane intermediate to a cis-geometry and leads to productive formation of Z-olefins. These catalysts have shown great utility in the synthesis of complicated natural product precursors and stereoregular polymers. More recently, ruthenium catalysts capable of promoting Z-selective metathesis have been reported by our group and others. This thesis will discuss the development of ruthenium-based NHC chelated Z-selective catalysts, studies probing their unique metathesis mechanism, and synthetic applications that have been investigated thus far.

Chapter 1 will focus on studies into the stability of NHC chelated complexes and the synthesis of new and improved stable chelating architectures. Chapter 2 will discuss applications of the highly active and Z-selective developed in Chapter 1, including the formation of lepidopteran female sex pheromones using olefin cross metathesis and highly Z- and highly E-macrocycles using macrocyclic ring closing metathesis and Z-selective ethenolysis. Chapter 3 will explore studies into the unique mechanism of olefin metathesis reactions catalyzed by these NHC chelated, highly Z-selective catalysts, explaining observed trends by investigating the stability of relevant, substituted metallacyclobutane intermediates.

Argilas pilarizadas: uma tecnologia limpa na reação de isomerização do óxido de estireno

Neste trabalho, fracionou-se e tratou-se a argila Brasgel. Esta argila foi pilarizada em vários estágios de facionamento e/ou tratamento com 5 meq de Al / g de argila: (i) Al-PILC, a argila passou por todos os estágios de fracionamento e tratamento (ARG), (ii) Al-PILCFe, a argila não passou pela etapa de retirada de Fe livre (ARGFe) e (iii) Al-PILCFe/silte, a argila não passou pelas etapas de retirada de silte e Fe livre (ARGFE/silte). Em análise por DRX observou-se que as Al-PILCs apresentaram uma distância basal maior que as argilas de partida. A análise textural indicou que as argilas Al-PILCs e ARGs são materiais mesoporosos, com poros do tipo fenda estreita e do tipo fenda, respectivamente. Além disso, as Al-PILCs apresentaram área superficial razoavelmente maior que as ARGs correspondentes. Outras análises feitas nas argilas foram: teor de Si, Fe e Al; CTC; FTIR; TGA e TGD. As argilas Brasgel pilarizadas foram usadas como catalisador na reação de isomerização do óxido de estireno em hexano sob refluxo. A reação foi seletiva na formação de fenilacetaldeído. As argilas Al-PILCFe e Al-PILCFe/silte apresentaram melhor desempenho catalítico (100 % de conversão em 20 min de reação). Assim, as argilas Brasgel pilarizadas se apresentaram como uma Tecnologia Limpa na reação de isomerização do óxido de estireno ao fenilacetaldeído. Palavras-chave: Desenvolvimento Sustentável. Tecnologia Limpa. Química Verde. Argilas Pilarizadas. Isomerização de Epóxidos.

Síntese e caracterização de TiO2 puro e modificado para aplicações ambientais

Fotocatalisadores baseados em nanopartículas de dióxido de titânio modificados fornecem soluções em potencial para a mineralização de poluentes orgânicos em meio aquoso. Agentes modificadores têm sido amplamente investigados com o objetivo de promover a fotoativação pela luz visível. Foram estudadas a nível fundamental até aqui, as modificações estruturais, texturais e óticas causadas pela introdução de silício e nitrogênio na rede da titânia. Titânias puras (TiO2) e modificadas nanoestruturadas, particularmente titânias modificadas com silício (TiO2-SiO2), com razões atômicas Si/Ti de 0,1, 0,2 e 0,3 foram sintetizadas pelo método sol-gel a partir da hidrólise ácida de isopropóxido de titânio(IV) e tetraetoxisilano. As metodolo-gias sintéticas desenvolvidas tentaram aderir aos princípios da Química Verde, dispensando o uso de atmosfera inerte e temperatura e pressão elevadas, o que foi alcançado utilizando-se, principalmente, a agitação ultrassônica. Titânias modificadas com silício e dopadas com ni-trogênio (TiO2-SiO2-N) foram obtidas a partir do pré-tratamento de TiO2-SiO2 a 500 C ao ar e então submetidas ao fluxo de amônia (NH3) a 600 C por 1-3 h e, após resfriamento, foram recozidas a 400 C ao ar. Amostras distintas foram caracterizadas, na forma de pó seco e após calcinação entre 400600 C, por difração de raios X, adsorção de nitrogênio, microscopia eletrônica de varredura e espectroscopia de refletância difusa no UV-Visível. As titânias pu-ras, obtidas principalmente variando-se a razão de hidrólise, foram cristalizadas na forma de anatásio como fase predominante até 600 C, além de traços de brookita presente até 500 C. O rutilo foi identificado a partir de 600 C como fase minoritária, embora apresentando tama-nhos de cristal significativamente maiores que os estimados para o cristal de anatásio. As titâ-nias modificadas com até 20% de silício apresentaram notável estabilidade térmica, evidenci-ada pela presença exclusiva de anatásio até 900 C. Foi também observado o aparecimento de macroporos com diâmetro médio em torno de 55 nm após calcinação a 400 C, diferentemente do que se observou nas amostras em geral. A introdução de baixo teor de silício assegurou às titânias calcinadas valores elevados de área específica, atribuído ao efeito de contenção acentuada na taxa de crescimento do cristal. As titânias modificadas com silício e as titânias puras obtidas com taxa de hidrólise 25:1 para a razão H2O : Ti apresentaram mesoporos com diâmetros médios de mesma dimensão do cristal. As titânias modificadas com silício e dopa-das com nitrogênio apresentaram absorção na região visível entre 400-480 nm, com discreta redução da energia de band gap para as transições eletrônicas consideradas. Titânias calcina-das a 300−400 C apresentaram desempenho fotocatalítico semelhante ao TiO2 P25 da De-gussa sob irradiação UV, na degradação do azo corante Reactive Yellow 145 em soluções a-quosas em pH 5 a 20 1C

Sínteses e caracterizações de TiO2 puro, dopado e co-dopado pelo método sol-gel e suas atividades fotocatalíticas

Nanopartículas de dióxido de titânio vêm sendo extensamente empregadas como fotocatalisa-dores, já que são eficientes na degradação de diversos poluentes. Visando a obtenção de titâ-nias com diferentes propriedades, realizaram-se sínteses através do método sol-gel, a partir da hidrólise do tetraisopropóxido de titânio (IV) TIPP e seguindo-se os princípios da Química Verde, dispensando-se temperaturas e pressões elevadas. Foi estudada a influência de dife-rentes parâmetros, como: pH, solvente, razão molar álcool/TIPP e ordem de adição dos rea-gentes. Foram obtidas titânias na forma cristalina anatásio, nanométricas, com elevadas áreas superficiais específicas e predominantemente mesoporosas. Visando-se obter titânias com melhores propriedades óticas, isto é, capazes de sofrer a fotoativação pela luz visível, foram sintetizadas titânias dopadas e co-dopadas com os metais ferro e rutênio (Fe3+ e Ru3+) e o a-metal N (N3). A síntese desses materiais também foi realizada através do método sol-gel, sendo a dopagem realizada durante o processo de hidrólise. As amostras foram caracterizadas na forma de pó por difração de raios-X, adsorção-dessorção de nitrogênio, microscopia ele-trônica de varredura e espectroscopia de refletância difusa no UV-Visível. A titânia pura a-presentou como única fase cristalina o anatásio, quando calcinada até 400 C, com a presença de traços de brookita. A partir de 600 C, observou-se o aparecimento da fase rutilo, que em 900C foi a única fase encontrada na titânia. A dopagem com Ru3+dificultou a transformação de fase anatásio para rutilo, ao contrário da dopagem com Fe3+. O processo de co-dopagem acelerou a formação de rutilo, que se apresentou como única fase nas amostras calcinadas a 600 C. As titânias dopadas apresentaram uma leve diminuição na energia de bandgap, sendo os dopantes capazes de deslocar a absorção para o vermelho. Foram realizados testes fotoca-talíticos visando à degradação do azocorante Reactive Yellow 145 com lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio de 125 W a fim de se comparar as atividades fotocatalíticas das titânias puras, dopa-das e co-dopadas, calcinadas a 300C. De todas as titânias sintetizadas, a titânia pura foi a que melhor degradou o corante, tendo um desempenho semelhante ao do TiO2 P25, da Evo-nik