Three new species of Lebiasina (Characiformes: Lebiasinidae) from the Brazilian shield border at Serra do Cachimbo, Pará, Brazil

Lebiasina marilynae n. sp., L. melanoguttata n. sp., and L. minuta n. sp. are described from the headwaters of the rio Curuá, in Serra do Cachimbo, Pará, Brazil, and represent the only members of the Lebiasininae in the Brazilian Shied, so far. A close relationship among these species is proposed based on: 1) the presence of a pair of foramina through which the ramus palatinus of the facial nerve passes, a modification unique in Lebiasinidae and apparently in the Characiformes, 2) the enlargement of the extrascapular bone, 3) the absence of the secondary stripe, and 4) the nearly equal length of caudal-fin lobes. Lebiasina marilynae additionally differs from all congeners in having the primary stripe extending from the tip of the snout to the distal border of the caudal-fin peduncle, the possession of two series of dark blotches parallel to the primary stripe, and a rounded dorsal surface of the mesethmoid. Lebiasina melanoguttata and Lebiasina minuta additionally differ from all congeners in the absence of the primary stripe and the caudal blotch, and the presence of three longitudinal series of dark blotches at the base of the scales of series 3-5. Lebiasina melanoguttata differs from Lebiasina minuta in the absence of a dark blotch at the base of the median rays of the dorsal fin, second infrapharyngobranchial bearing conical teeth, the reddish overall coloration of the eye and fins, and the dark blotches never coalescing (vs. dark dorsal-fin blotch present; the second infrapharyngobranchial being edentulous; dark, olive green eyes, and the yellowish overall color of body and fins; and the dark blotches of longitudinal series 3 and 4 coalescing where scales of adjacent longitudinal series overlap). The occurrence of species of the Lebiasininae on the Brazilian Shield is discussed, and the distribution pattern of the species described herein is compared to that of other endemic species of the Serra do Cachimbo, a highly biodiverse area isolated from the rest of the Amazon basin.

Volunteer-based coral reef monitoring: reliability of data, environmental education and implications for conservation

Coral reefs are the most biodiverse ecosystems of the ocean and they provide notable ecosystem services. Nowadays, they are facing a number of local anthropogenic threats and environmental change is threatening their survivorship on a global scale. Large-scale monitoring is necessary to understand environmental changes and to perform useful conservation measurements. Governmental agencies are often underfunded and are not able of sustain the necessary spatial and temporal large-scale monitoring. To overcome the economic constrains, in some cases scientists can engage volunteers in environmental monitoring. Citizen Science enables the collection and analysis of scientific data at larger spatial and temporal scales than otherwise possible, addressing issues that are otherwise logistically or financially unfeasible. “STE: Scuba Tourism for the Environment” was a volunteer-based Red Sea coral reef biodiversity monitoring program. SCUBA divers and snorkelers were involved in the collection of data for 72 taxa, by completing survey questionnaires after their dives. In my thesis, I evaluated the reliability of the data collected by volunteers, comparing their questionnaires with those completed by professional scientists. Validation trials showed a sufficient level of reliability, indicating that non-specialists performed similarly to conservation volunteer divers on accurate transects. Using the data collected by volunteers, I developed a biodiversity index that revealed spatial trends across surveyed areas. The project results provided important feedbacks to the local authorities on the current health status of Red Sea coral reefs and on the effectiveness of the environmental management. I also analysed the spatial and temporal distribution of each surveyed taxa, identifying abundance trends related with anthropogenic impacts. Finally, I evaluated the effectiveness of the project to increase the environmental education of volunteers and showed that the participation in STEproject significantly increased both the knowledge on coral reef biology and ecology and the awareness of human behavioural impacts on the environment.

Eine ökologische Landeskunde der Rhön

Die Ökologische Landeskunde der Rhön – mit einem Schwerpunkt auf dem hessischen Teil – behandelt als moderne Landeskunde neben der Geostruktur und der humangeographischen Struktur im Besonderen die ökologische Struktur, denn nur durch diese Pointierung können Räume in ihrer Gesamtheit und Komplexität beschrieben werden. Das gilt im Besonderen für ökologisch bedeutsame Schutzräume wie die Rhön. Der Mittelgebirgsraum Rhön ist eine über Jahrhunderte gewachsene Kulturlandschaft mit einem weitgehend intakten, aber fragilen Ökosystem, das eine einzigartige und schützenswerte floristische und faunistische Ausstattung aufweist. Durch die weitreichenden mittelalterlichen Rodungen und die anschließende extensive Weidenutzung haben sich unter dem Eingriff des Menschen besonders auf den Höhenlagen im Laufe der Zeit artenreiche und ökologisch bedeutsame Ökosystemtypen, wie Borst- und Kalkmagerrasen, entwickelt. Um das naturräumliche und touristische Potential des Untersuchungsraums langfristig erhalten zu können, haben ökologische und nachhaltige Entwicklungen in den einzelnen Wirtschaftssektoren eine überragende Funktion. Im primären, sekundären und tertiären Sektor zeigen sich deutliche Entwicklungen hin zu ökologischen Erzeugnissen und Dienstleistungen. Der Ökolandbau gewinnt in der Rhön zunehmend an Bedeutung, Betriebe spezialisieren sich immer mehr auf Bio-zertifizierte und regionale Produkte und werben verstärkt mit ökologischen und rhöntypischen Begrifflichkeiten. Vor allem der für die Rhön wirtschaftlich bedeutende Tourismussektor, der im Spannungsfeld zwischen Ökonomie und Ökologie steht, entwickelt sich ebenfalls in Richtung nachhaltiger und umweltfreundlicher Formen. Am Beispiel des Milseburgradwegs konnte anhand einer Besucherbefragung auf Basis standardisierter Fragestellungen mit vornehmlich geschlossenen Fragen gezeigt werden, wie wichtig den Nutzern eine intakte Natur ist und wie Ökotourismus, Wirtschaftlichkeit und Naturschutz koexistieren können. Die Prämierung der Rhön zum Biosphärenreservat Rhön durch die UNESCO im Jahre 1991 erwies sich als Glücksfall und konnte dem strukturschwachen ländlichen Raum wichtige ökologische und wirtschaftliche Impulse geben, vor allem in Richtung ökologischer und nachhaltiger Erzeugnisse und Dienstleistungen. Die Auszeichnung kann dabei als Synthese zwischen Geostruktur und humangeographischer Struktur angesehen werden und ist Würdigung, Mahnung und Pflicht zugleich. Zusätzlich verdeutlicht sie auf eindringliche Weise die Fragilität und Schutzwürdigkeit des Ökosystems. Gegenwärtig zeichnen sich im Untersuchungsraum einige Entwicklungen ab, die die ökologische Raumstruktur gefährden und zusätzlich zur Aberkennung des Titels Biosphärenreservat führen könnten, weshalb sie kritisch gesehen werden müssen. Hier stechen der Bau der geplanten Bundesstraße B 87n von Fulda nach Meiningen oder das Kernzonendefizit hervor. Die Arbeit ist deshalb ein Plädoyer für den unbedingten Erhalt des identitätsstiftenden Titels Biosphärenreservat sowie für eine aktive Umweltbildung, denn eine erfolgreiche Zukunft und Identifikation der Bewohner mit ihrem Heimatraum ist unmittelbar an das Prädikat gekoppelt. Ökologische Landeskunden verstehen sich als aktive Elemente in der Umweltbildung und richten sich an die Menschen, die immer mehr zum prägenden Faktor von Räumen und ihren Ökosystemen werden. In der Rhön können sie sogar als Ausgangspunkt für die Herausbildung aufgefasst werden. Trotz der begrenzten Aussagekraft der Arbeit und der Komplexität des Untersuchungsraums zeigen sich vielfältige, ökologisch relevante Entwicklungen, die jedoch durch weitere sozialwissenschaftliche und wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Arbeiten erweitert, vertieft und stetig abgeglichen werden müssen.

Stable N isotope composition of nitrate reflects N transformations during the passage of water through a montane rain forest in Ecuador

Knowledge of the fate of deposited N in the possibly N-limited, highly biodiverse north Andean forests is important because of the possible effects of N inputs on plant performance and species composition. We analyzed concentrations and fluxes of NO3 −–N, NH4 +–N and dissolved organic N (DON) in rainfall, throughfall, litter leachate, mineral soil solutions (0.15–0.30 m depths) and stream water in a montane forest in Ecuador during four consecutive quarters and used the natural 15N abundance in NO3 − during the passage of rain water through the ecosystem and bulk δ15N values in soil to detect N transformations. Depletion of 15N in NO3 − and increased NO3 −–N fluxes during the passage through the canopy and the organic layer indicated nitrification in these compartments. During leaching from the organic layer to mineral soil and stream, NO3 − concentrations progressively decreased and were enriched in 15N but did not reach the δ15N values of solid phase organic matter (δ15N = 5.6–6.7‰). This suggested a combination of nitrification and denitrification in mineral soil. In the wettest quarter, the δ15N value of NO3 − in litter leachate was smaller (δ15N = −1.58‰) than in the other quarters (δ15N = −9.38 ± SE 0.46‰) probably because of reduced mineralization and associated fractionation against 15N. Nitrogen isotope fractionation of NO3 − between litter leachate and stream water was smaller in the wettest period than in the other periods probably because of a higher rate of denitrification and continuous dilution by isotopically lighter NO3 −–N from throughfall and nitrification in the organic layer during the wettest period. The stable N isotope composition of NO3 − gave valuable indications of N transformations during the passage of water through the forest ecosystem from rainfall to the stream.

Kelp Forest Ecosystems: Biodiversity, Stability, Resilience and Future

Kelp forests are phyletically diverse, structurally complex and highly productive components of cold-water rocky marine coastlines. This paper reviews the conditions in which kelp forests develop globally and where, why and at what rate they become deforested. The ecology and long archaeological history of kelp forests are examined through case studies from southern California, the Aleutian Islands and the western North Atlantic, well-studied locations that represent the widest possible range in kelp forest biodiversity. Global distribution of kelp forests is physiologically constrained by light at high latitudes and by nutrients, warm temperatures and other macrophytes at low latitudes. Within mid-latitude belts (roughly 40-60degrees latitude in both hemispheres) well-developed kelp forests are most threatened by herbivory, usually from sea urchins. Overfishing and extirpation of highly valued vertebrate apex predators often triggered herbivore population increases, leading to widespread kelp deforestation. Such deforestations have the most profound and lasting impacts on species-depauperate systems, such as those in Alaska and the western North Atlantic. Globally urchin-induced deforestation has been increasing over the past 2-3 decades. Continued fishing down of coastal food webs has resulted in shifting harvesting targets from apex predators to their invertebrate prey, including kelp-grazing herbivores. The recent global expansion of sea urchin harvesting has led to the widespread extirpation of this herbivore, and kelp forests have returned in some locations but, for the first time, these forests are devoid of vertebrate apex predators. In the western North Atlantic, large predatory crabs have recently filled this void and they have become the new apex predator in this system. Similar shifts from fish- to crab-dominance may have occurred in coastal zones of the United Kingdom and Japan, where large predatory finfish were extirpated long ago. Three North American case studies of kelp forests were examined to determine their long history with humans and project the status of future kelp forests to the year 2025. Fishing impacts on kelp forest systems have been both profound and much longer in duration than previously thought. Archaeological data suggest that coastal peoples exploited kelp forest organisms for thousands of years, occasionally resulting in localized losses of apex predators, outbreaks of sea urchin populations and probably small-scale deforestation. Over the past two centuries, commercial exploitation for export led to the extirpation of sea urchin predators, such as the sea otter in the North Pacific and predatory fishes like the cod in the North Atlantic. The largescale removal of predators for export markets increased sea urchin abundances and promoted the decline of kelp forests over vast areas. Despite southern California having one of the longest known associations with coastal kelp forests, widespread deforestation is rare. It is possible that functional redundancies among predators and herbivores make this most diverse system most stable. Such biodiverse kelp forests may also resist invasion from non-native species. In the species-depauperate western North Atlantic, introduced algal competitors carpet the benthos and threaten future kelp dominance. There, other non-native herbivores and predators have become established and dominant components of this system. Climate changes have had measurable impacts on kelp forest ecosystems and efforts to control the emission of greenhouse gasses should be a global priority. However, overfishing appears to be the greatest manageable threat to kelp forest ecosystems over the 2025 time horizon. Management should focus on minimizing fishing impacts and restoring populations of functionally important species in these systems.

Geochemical analysis of nine sections from the Nama Group, Namibia

The first appearance of skeletal metazoans in the late Ediacaran (~550 million years ago; Ma) has been linked to the widespread development of oxygenated oceanic conditions, but a precise spatial and temporal reconstruction of their evolution has not been resolved. Here we consider the evolution of ocean chemistry from ~550 to ~541 Ma across shelf-to-basin transects in the Zaris and Witputs Sub-Basins of the Nama Group, Namibia. New carbon isotope data capture the final stages of the Shuram/Wonoka deep negative C-isotope excursion, and these are complemented with a reconstruction of water column redox dynamics utilising Fe-S-C systematics and the distribution of skeletal and soft-bodied metazoans. Combined, these inter-basinal datasets provide insight into the potential role of ocean redox chemistry during this pivotal interval of major biological innovation. The strongly negative d13C values in the lower parts of the sections reflect both a secular, global change in the C-isotopic composition of Ediacaran seawater, as well as the influence of 'local' basinal effects as shown by the most negative d13C values occurring in the transition from distal to proximal ramp settings. Critical, though, is that the transition to positive d13C values postdates the appearance of calcified metazoans, indicating that the onset of biomineralization did not occur under post-excursion conditions. Significantly, we find that anoxic and ferruginous deeper water column conditions were prevalent during and after the transition to positive d13C that marks the end of the Shuram/Wonoka excursion. Thus, if the C isotope trend reflects the transition to global-scale oxygenation in the aftermath of the oxidation of a large-scale, isotopically light organic carbon pool, it was not sufficient to fully oxygenate the deep ocean. Both sub-basins reveal highly dynamic redox structures, where shallow, inner ramp settings experienced transient oxygenation. Anoxic conditions were caused either by episodic upwelling of deeper anoxic waters or higher rates of productivity. These settings supported short-lived and monospecific skeletal metazoan communities. By contrast, microbial (thrombolite) reefs, found in deeper inner- and mid-ramp settings, supported more biodiverse communities with complex ecologies and large skeletal metazoans. These long-lived reef communities, as well as Ediacaran soft-bodied biotas, are found particularly within transgressive systems, where oxygenation was persistent. We suggest that a mid-ramp position enabled physical ventilation mechanisms for shallow water column oxygenation to operate during flooding and transgressive sea-level rise. Our data support a prominent role for oxygen, and for stable oxygenated conditions in particular, in controlling both the distribution and ecology of Ediacaran skeletal metazoan communities.

Coleópteros Saproxílicos de los Bosques de Montaña en el Norte de la Comunidad de Madrid

La fauna saproxílica ha cobrado mucha relevancia en los últimos años. Por una parte, debido a los múltiples papeles que juega en la ecología de los bosques y por otra, por encontrarse muchas especies de ese grupo amenazadas como consecuencia de la intensificación de las actividades forestales. Se supone que los bosques de Europa meridional albergan una fauna saproxílica rica y variada. Sin embargo apenas se han realizado estudios que permitan conocer la composición de las biocenosis saproxílicas, así como el estatus y grado de amenaza a que está sometida cada especie. En esta tesis se han muestreado de forma sistemática las comunidades de coleópteros saproxílicos de cuatro montes del norte de la Comunidad de Madrid, muy diferentes a pesar de su cercanía: Dehesa Bonita de Somosierra, Hayedo de Montejo, Dehesa de Madarcos y Pinar de La Maleza. Para llevar a cabo la recogida de muestras se definió una estación de muestreo tipo, compuesta por cuatro trampas aéreas con cebo oloroso, dos trampas de ventana y una trampa de embudos. En los dos primeros montes mencionados se desplegaron seis estaciones de muestreo, por sólo tres en los otros dos. El primer objetivo de esta tesis fue conocer las especies de coleópteros que constituyen la fauna de los cuatro montes estudiados. Los muestreos sistemáticos reportaron la presencia de un total de 357 especies de coleópteros saproxílicos, siendo el Hayedo de Montejo el bosque con la diversidad más alta, 220 especies; le siguen la Dehesa de Madarcos con 116; el pinar de La Maleza con 115; y la Dehesa de Somosierra con 109, si bien la fauna de este ultimo bosque podría ser mucho más variada dado que la interferencia del ganado con algunos dispositivos de captura hizo que se perdiera parte del material allí recolectado. Se han encontrado nueve especies nuevas para la fauna de la Península Ibérica, y otras muchas desconocidas previamente en el centro peninsular. Un total de 50 especies se encuentran incluidas en la Lista Roja Europea de coleópteros saproxílicos. El segundo objetivo fue estimar la riqueza de fauna de coleópteros saproxílicos en cada bosque. Partiendo de los datos de los respectivo muestreos se calcularon diferentes estimadores, paramétricos y no paramétricos, y se elaboraron las curvas de rarefacción para cada bosque y para el conjunto. El bosque con más biodiversidad ha resultado ser el Hayedo de Montejo, que albergaría entre 254 y 332 especies. En el Pinar de la Maleza se encontrarían de 132 a 223; de 128 a 205 en la Dehesa de Somosierra; y entre 134 y 188 en la Dehesa de Madarcos. Para el conjunto del área se estimó la presencia de entre 411 y 512 especies. El tercer objetivo fue evaluar la influencia de algunos factores como la especie arbórea dominante y la cantidad de madera muerta en la riqueza y diversidad de coleópteros saproxílicos. El estudio se realizó en el Hayedo de Montejo, encontrando una alta correlación positiva entre cantidad y calidad de madera muerta, y diversidad y riqueza de especies de coleópteros saproxílicos. El cuarto objetivo fue evaluar la eficacia y complementariedad de los diferentes tipos de dispositivos de captura empleados en los muestreos. El más eficaz resultó ser la trampa de ventana, seguido por la trampa aérea con cebo oloroso, y finalmente la trampa de embudos. La mayor complementariedad se encontró entre trampas de ventana y aéreas con cebo oloroso. No obstante, si se quiere optimizar la exhaustividad del inventario no se debe prescindir de ninguno de los sistemas. En cualquier caso, puede afirmarse que la efectividad de los tres tipos de dispositivos de captura utilizados en los muestreos fue baja, pues para la gran mayoría de especies presentes se capturó un número de ejemplares realmente bajo. El bajo rendimiento de captura implica un bajo impacto sobre las poblaciones de las especies muestreadas, y esto supone una importante ventaja desde el punto de vista de la conservación. Finalmente, se dejan algunas recomendaciones de manejo a aplicar en cada uno de los montes con el fin de preservar o mejorar los hábitats utilizables por la fauna saproxílica que garanticen el mantenimiento y mejora de dichas comunidades. ABSTRACT The saproxylic fauna has become increasingly important in recent years. It has been due, on the one hand, to the multiple roles they play in the forest ecosystems and, on the other, because of the large proportion of endangered saproxylic species as a result of the intensification of forestry. It is generally assumed that southern Europe forests are home to a rich and diverse saproxylic fauna. However, there are hardly any studies leading to reveal the composition of saproxylic biocenosis, or the stage and extent of the threat each species is suffering. For the purpose of this thesis the communities of saproxylic beetles of four mountain forests in northern Comunidad de Madrid have been systematically sampled: Dehesa Bonita de Somosierra, Hayedo de Montejo, Dehesa de Madarcos and Pinar de La Maleza. They are very different from each other in spite of not being too far apart. In order to carry out sample collection, a standard sampling station was defined as follows: four smelly bait aerial traps, two window traps and one funnel trap. Six sampling stations were deployed in each of the first two forests mentioned above; put only three in each of the other two. The first aim of this thesis was to determine the composition of saproxylic beetles fauna inhabiting each of the four forests studied. Systematic sampling reported the presence of a total of 357 species of saproxylic beetles. Hayedo de Montejo, with 220 species, is the forest with the highest diversity, followed by Dehesa de Madarcos, 116; Pinar de La Maleza, 115, and Dehesa de Somosierra, 109. The fauna of the latter forest, however, could be much more varied, since cattle interference with some capture devices caused the loss of part of the material collected there. Nine new species in the fauna of the Iberian Peninsula were found, and many others previously unknown in the center of the Peninsula. A total of 41 of those species are included in the European Red List of saproxylic beetles. The second aim was to estimate the richness of saproxylic (beetle) fauna in each forest. From the data of the respective sampling, different parametric and nonparametric estimators were calculated, and rarefaction curves for each forest, as well as for the four of them together, were drawn. The most biodiverse forest turned out to be Hayedo de Montejo, which houses between 254 and 332 species. In Pinar de La Maleza, between 132 and 223 species were found; between 128 and 205 in Dehesa de Somosierra, and between 134 and 188 in Dehesa de Madarcos. The estimated diversity of species for the whole area ranges from 411 to 512. The third aim was to evaluate the influence of such factors as the dominant tree species and the amount of dead wood in the richness and diversity of saproxylic beetles. The study was conducted at Hayedo de Montejo, finding a high positive correlation between quantity and quality of coarse woody debris and diversity and richness of saproxylic beetle species. The fourth aim was to evaluate the effectiveness and complementarity of the different sampling methods used in this research work. The most effective proved to be the window trap, followed by the smelly bait aerial trap and the funnel trap, in that order. The greater complementarity was found between window and aerial traps. However, in order to optimize the completeness of the inventory, neither of the systems should be discarded. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of the three types of capture devices used in this piece of research was on the whole rather low, since for the vast majority of species, a significant low number of specimens were captured. Poor trapping performance implies a low impact on the populations of the sampled species, and this is an important advantage in terms of conservation. Finally, this thesis gives some recommendations with regard to the management of each of those four forests, leading to preserve and improve the habitats of the saproxylic wildlife and so ensure the maintenance and growth of their communities.

Caracterización morfofisiológica de semillas de especies leñosas distribuidas en dos zonas secas presentes en el Sur del Ecuador

Sudamérica es una de las zonas con mayor cantidad de bosque seco tropical a nivel mundial. No obstante, estos bosques han sido poco conocidos y la mayoría de estudios han estado orientados hacia los bosques húmedos tropicales. Los bosques secos se han reducido drásticamente y siguen muy amenazados, corriendo el riesgo de desaparecer en los próximos años. Por ello, es fundamental, generar investigación aplicada para la conservación inmediata de los ecosistemas secos tropicales. En Ecuador, la situación no es diferente y las zonas secas catalogadas como biodiversas están en constante amenaza. Los pocos estudios realizados en Ecuador sobre zonas secas, han permitido mejorar nuestro conocimiento referente a la diversidad y abundancia de las especies, relaciones planta-planta y síndromes de dispersión. No existen estudios sobre caracteres morfológicos en frutos y semillas de las especies leñosas de bosque seco. Sin embargo, nuestra comprensión de la dinámica y estructura de las comunidades ecológicas de zonas secas poco estudiadas, puede mejorar rápidamente mediante el estudio y enfoque de rasgos morfofisiológicos funcionales. El objetivo general del presente estudio fue aportar al conocimiento de la ecología y biología de semillas de zonas secas tropicales mediante el análisis y evaluación de rasgos morfofisiológicos de frutos y semillas de una comunidad de especies leñosas. El estudio se realizó en una zona de bosque y matorral seco, ubicados al sur occidente del Ecuador, a una altitud comprendida entre los 250 a 1 200 m s.n.m. caracterizada por una marcada estacionalidad ambiental, con lluvias desde diciembre a abril y una estación seca de mayo a noviembre. Precipitación media anual de 500 mm con una temperatura media anual de 20° a 26 °C. La zona de estudio forma parte de la región Tumbesina compartida entre el sur del Ecuador y el norte del Perú con gran diversidad de especies vegetales endémicas. Para el estudio se colectaron frutos con semillas maduras previamente a su dispersión de entre ocho y diez individuos de 80 especies entre árboles y arbustos más representativos de los bosques secos ecuatorianos. De los frutos colectados se utilizó una muestra al azar de 50 frutos y semillas por especie para los diferentes análisis. Se midió y evaluó 18 rasgos morfológicos y fisiológicos cuantitativos y cualitativos de frutos, semillas y de la especie. Se realizaron diferentes análisis de asociación y correlación entre los rasgos evaluados, con cinco variables ambientales registradas de las 109 parcelas establecidas en el área de estudio, además analizamos el tipo de dormición y comparamos la respuesta germinativa a la deshidratación relacionada con dos comunidades secas, matorral y bosque seco. Los resultados mostraron que las especies presentan gran heterogeneidad en rasgos continuos de las semillas. La variabilidad fue más evidente en rasgos como tamaño, volumen, masa y número de semillas por fruto. Sin embargo, una alta proporción de las especies tiende a producir una semilla por fruto. Además, la mayoría de las especies de bosque seco se caracterizan por no poseer algún tipo de apéndices o areola en sus semillas, forma ovalada y sin endospermo. La reserva nutritiva de las semillas se encuentra especialmente en los cotiledones de los embriones. Se encontraron seis tipos diferentes de embriones y la mayoría de las especies presentó embriones gruesos e invertidos. La dispersión de semillas está dominada por zoocoria en un 38 %, con relación a anemocoria (22 %) y autocoria (19 %). Sin embargo, encontramos que el 70 % de las especies posee frutos secos. Los análisis de dormición en las semillas de bosque seco, mostraron que el 60 % de las especies de bosque seco presentaron semillas con algún tipo de latencia, menor a la encontrada en especies de bosque deciduo tropical y sabanas, sin embargo, la dormición de las especies de bosque seco fue mayor al porcentaje de especies con dormición de bosque semiperenne y selva lluviosa tropical. La dormición física constituyó el 35 % de las especies de bosque seco, seguido del 12 % con dormición fisiológica, mientras que solamente una especie tuvo dormición morfológica. Encontramos que la dormición de las semillas de las especies en estudio se relaciona significativamente con el tipo y función del embrión y con el endospermo. Existieron relaciones significativas entre los rasgos morfológicos de los frutos, semillas, embriones y atributos de los individuos de 46 especies, aunque en algunos casos con coeficientes de correlación bajos. Hubo pocas relaciones entre los rasgo morfológicos de las semillas con las variables ambientales registradas. Solamente el tipo de testa y la presencia de apéndices en las semillas mostraron relación con el pH y la temperatura media del suelo. No obstante usando el modelo fouth corner-RLQ, no se encontraron asociaciones claras ni significativas entre rasgos morfológicos de semillas y frutos con variables ambientales. Al medir el efecto de la deshidratación en las semillas de los dos hábitats secos tropicales: bosque y matorral seco, los resultados determinaron que tanto las semillas de las especies leñosas de ambientes más áridos (matorral seco) están en gran medida pre-adaptadas a la desecación que las especies de ambientes menos áridos (bosque seco). Los tratamientos de deshidratación ejercieron un efecto negativo en los porcentajes de germinación en todas las especies, excepto para C. platanifolia. Los resultados más sorprendentes se registraron para Senna alata que mostró germinación extremadamente baja o incluso sin germinación a contenidos de humedad de la semillas de 0,10 g H2O g de peso seco. Las curvas de germinación difirieron significativamente entre los tratamientos de deshidratación en cada especie. Aportar al conocimiento la fisiología de la deshidratación y los límites de tolerancia de las semillas de bosque y matorral seco ayudará a entender mejor el papel de este rasgo en la ecología de las semillas y dinámica de las comunidades áridas tropicales. El estudio demostró, que la adaptación ecológica de las semillas de las especies leñosas de bosque seco a factores ambientales extremos, puede verse reflejada en una red de interacciones y correlaciones complejas entre los propios rasgos morfológicos y fisiológicos continuos y cuantitativos, sobre todo en rasgos internos de las semillas, quienes ejercerían una mayor influencia en toda la red de interacciones. Si bien, los rasgos de las semillas no mostraron fuertes relaciones con las variables ambientales, posiblemente las asociaciones presentes entre rasgos morfológicos pudiesen predecir en cambio interacciones entre especies y comportamientos y procesos relacionados con la tolerancia a la deshidratación y dormición de las semillas. ABSTRACT South America is one of the areas with the largest number of tropical dry forest in the world. However, these forests have been poorly understood and most studies have been directed to tropical rainforests. Dry forests have been drastically reduced and are very threatened, risking desaparecerer in the next years. It is therefore essential, generate applied research for conservation of tropical dry ecosystems. In Ecuador the situation is no different and dry areas classified as biodiverse are under constant threat. The few studies made in Ecuador on drylands have improved our knowledge concerning the diversity and abundance of species, plant-plant relationships and dispersion syndromes. Morphological studies on fruits and seeds of woody dry forest species do not exist. However, our understanding of the dynamics and structure of ecological communities dryland little studied, may improve quickly through the study and functional approach morphophysiological traits. The overall objective of this study was to contribute to the knowledge of the ecology and biology of tropical dry seeds through analysis and evaluation of morphophysiological traits of fruits and seeds of a community of woody species. The study was conducted in an area of dry scrub forest, located at the southwest of Ecuador, at an altitude between 250 to 1200 m asl. Environmental characterized by a marked seasonality, with rainfall from December to April and a dry season from May to November. Annual rainfall of 500 mm with an average annual temperature of 20° to 26 °C. The study area is part of the shared Tumbesina region between southern Ecuador and northern Peru with a great diversity of endemic plant species. For the study, we collected fruit and seed madure of eight and ten individuos of 80 species of trees and shrub most representated of the Ecuador dry forest. We selected a sample of 50 fruits and seeds for different analysis. We measure and evaluate 18 morphological and physiological traits of fruits, seeds and species. We perform analysis and correlation between traits associated with five environmental variables taken from the 109 plots established in the study area also analyze and compare the germination response to dehydration related to two dry communities, scrub and dry forest. The results showed that the species have great heterogeneity in continuous seed traits. Variability was more evident in features such as size, volume, mass, and number of seeds per fruit. However, a high proportion of species tends to produce a seed per fruit. In addition, most of the species of dry forest is characterized by not having some sort of ppendices or areola in its seeds, oval form and without endosperm. The nutrient reserves of seeds are especially in the cotyledons of the embryos. Six different embryos were found and most of the species presented thick and inverted embryos. Seed dispersal zoochory is dominated by 38 %, relative to anemochory (22 %) and autochory (19 %). However, we found that 70 % of the species has dried fruits. The analysis of dormancy from tropical dry forest, showed that 60 % of species showed seed dormancy, down from species found in tropical deciduous forest and savanna, however dormancy dry forest species was higher than the percentage of forest species dormancy semi-evergreen and tropical rain forest. Physical dormancy corresponds to 35 % of species, followed by 12 % with physiological dormancy, while only one species had morphological dormancy. We found that dormancy of the seeds was significantly related to the type and function of the embryo and the endospemo. There were significant relationships between morphological traits of fruits, seeds, embryos and attributes of individuals of 46 species, although in some cases with low correlation coefficients. There was little relationship between the morphologic traits of the seeds with the registered environmental variables. Only the type of tesla and the presence of appendages on the seeds showed relation to pH and the mean soil temperature. However, using the fourth corner-RLQ model, neither clear nor significant between morphological traits of seeds and fruits associations with environmental variables were found. The effect of dehydration on seeds of two tropical dry forest habitats was evident in dry scrub. The results determined that both the seeds of woody species forest and dry scrub are pre-adapted to drier conditions. Dehydration treatments exerted a negative effect on germination percentage in all species, except for C. platanifolia. However, all species germinated in treatments of extreme dryness, but in low percentages. The most striking results were recorded for Senna alata showed no germination when its moisture content was 0.10 g H2O g dry weight. Germination curves differ significantly between the treatments of dehydration in each species. Contribute to the knowledge of physiology and dehydration tolerance limits seeds dry scrub forest and help you better understand the role of this trait in seed ecology and dynamics of tropical arid communities. The study showed that the ecological adaptation of seeds of woody species of dry forest to extreme environmental factors may be reflected in a complex web of interactions and correlations between morphological and physiological traits continuous and quantitative themselves, especially in internal seed traits, who exerted a major influence on the entire network of interactions. While the seed traits showed strong relationships with environmental variables possibly present associations between morphological traits could predict interactions between species and change behaviors related to desiccation tolerance and seed dormancy processes.

La biodiversidad marina en la Región de Murcia

Actualmente se ha detectado la existencia de un gradiente de biodiversidad, marcado por el eje Nor-Oeste/Sur-Este y justificado por variables ambientales claves como la latitud, salinidad, temperatura, circulación de las masas de agua, etc. La conjunción de estas variables hacen del litoral de Murcia una de las zonas de mayor biodiversidad del Mediterráneo, mar ya de por sí caracterizado por una alta biodiversidad. Una de las singularidades paisajísticas del litoral murciano son los cañones submarinos cercanos a la línea de costa, propuestos en la Cumbre Mundial de Desarrollo Sostenible de Johannesburgo (2002) como hábitats únicos de gran importancia ecológica. La disposición geográfica del litoral murciano lo convierte en una pantalla que frena el agua procedente del Atlántico y que pasa por Gibraltar, configurando un espacio marino en el que convergen especies mediterráneas y atlánticas, tanto a nivel pelágico como nerítico. La Región de Murcia muestra una gran cantidad de hábitats marinos contenidos en la Lista Patrón de Hábitats Marinos presentes en España, pero si existe un hábitat emblemático en el medio marino mediterráneo y, por ende, en el litoral de la Región de Murcia, es el generado por las praderas de Posidonia oceanica (Posidonietum oceanicae). Otro importantísimo valor natural regional es la laguna salada del Mar Menor, hábitat prioritario de la Directiva Hábitats, que alberga importantes poblaciones de caballito de mar, langostinos y otras especies de interés, además de ser un importante lugar de paso e invernada de aves acuáticas, limícolas y marinas.

Landscape genetics of Phaedranassa herb. (Amaryllidaceae) in Ecuador

Speciation can be understood as a continuum occurring at different levels, from population to species. The recent molecular revolution in population genetics has opened a pathway towards understanding species evolution. At the same time, speciation patterns can be better explained by incorporating a geographic context, through the use of geographic information systems (GIS). Phaedranassa (Amaryllidaceae) is a genus restricted to one of the world’s most biodiverse hotspots, the Northern Andes. I studied seven Phaedranassa species from Ecuador. Six of these species are endemic to the country. The topographic complexity of the Andes, which creates local microhabitats ranging from moist slopes to dry valleys, might explain the patterns of Phaedranassa species differentiation. With a Bayesian individual assignment approach, I assessed the genetic structure of the genus throughout Ecuador using twelve microsatellite loci. I also used bioclimatic variables and species geographic coordinates under a Maximum Entropy algorithm to generate distribution models of the species. My results show that Phaedranassa species are genetically well-differentiated. Furthermore, with the exception of two species, all Phaedranassa showed non-overlapping distributions. Phaedranassa viridiflora and P. glauciflora were the only species in which the model predicted a broad species distribution, but genetic evidence indicates that these findings are likely an artifact of species delimitation issues. Both genetic differentiation and nonoverlapping geographic distribution suggest that allopatric divergence could be the general model of genetic differentiation. Evidence of sympatric speciation was found in two geographically and genetically distinct groups of P. viridiflora. Additionally, I report the first register of natural hybridization for the genus. The findings of this research show that the genetic differentiation of species in an intricate landscape as the Andes does not necessarily show a unique trend. Although allopatric speciation is the most common form of speciation, I found evidence of sympatric speciation and hybridization. These results show that the processes of speciation in the Andes have followed several pathways. The mixture of these processes contributes to the high biodiversity of the region.

Mapping and Assessing Fire Damage on Broadleaved Forest Communities in Big Cypress National Preserve

Within Big Cypress National Preserve (BICY), oak-dominated forests and woodlands as well as tropical and temperate hardwood hammocks are integral components of the landscape and are biodiversity hotpots for both flora and fauna. These broadleaved forest communities serve as refugia for many of the Preserve’s wildlife species during prolonged flooding and fires. However, both prolonged flooding and severe fires, which are important and necessary disturbance vectors within this landscape, can have deleterious effects on these forested communities. This is particularly true in the case of fires, which under extreme conditions associated with drought and elevated fuel loads, can burn through these forested communities consuming litter and understory vegetation and top killing most, if not all, of the trees present.

The Role of Agriculture and Food Consumption in Tropical Conservation

A growing human population, shifting human dietary habits, and climate change are negatively affecting global ecosystems on a massive scale. Expanding agricultural areas to feed a growing population drives extensive habitat loss, and climate change compounds stresses on both food security and ecosystems. Understanding the negative effects of human diet and climate change on agricultural and natural ecosystems provides a context within which potential technological and behavioral solutions can be proposed to help maximize conservation. The purpose of this research was to (1) examine the potential effects of climate change on the suitability of areas for commercial banana plantations in Latin America in the 2050s and how shifts in growing areas could affect protected areas; (2) test the ability of small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to map productivity of banana plantations as a potential tool for increasing yields and decreasing future plantation expansions; (3) project the effects on biodiversity of increasing rates of animal product consumption in developing megadiverse countries; and (4) estimate the capacity of global pasture biomass production and Fischer-Tropsch hydrocarbon synthesis (IGCC-FT) processing to meet electricity, gasoline and diesel needs. The results indicate that (1) the overall extent of areas suitable for conventional banana cultivation is predicted to decrease by 19% by 2050 because of a hotter and drier climate, but all current banana exporting countries are predicted to maintain some suitable areas with no effects on protected areas; (2) Spatial patterns of NDVI and ENDVI were significantly positively correlated with several metrics of fruit yield and quality, indicating that UAV systems can be used in banana plantations to map spatial patterns of fruit yield; (3) Livestock production is the single largest driver of habitat loss, and both livestock and feedstock production are increasing in developing biodiverse tropical countries. Reducing global animal product consumption should therefore be at the forefront of strategies aimed at reducing biodiversity loss; (4) Removing livestock from global pasture lands and instead utilizing the biomass production could produce enough energy to meet 100% of the electricity, gasoline, and diesel needs of over 40 countries with extensive grassland ecosystems, primarily in tropical developing countries.

Nighttime dissolution in a temperate coastal ocean ecosystem increases under acidification

Anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) are causing ocean acidification, lowering seawater aragonite (CaCO3) saturation state (Omega arag), with potentially substantial impacts on marine ecosystems over the 21st Century. Calcifying organisms have exhibited reduced calcification under lower saturation state conditions in aquaria. However, the in situ sensitivity of calcifying ecosystems to future ocean acidification remains unknown. Here we assess the community level sensitivity of calcification to local CO2-induced acidification caused by natural respiration in an unperturbed, biodiverse, temperate intertidal ecosystem. We find that on hourly timescales nighttime community calcification is strongly influenced by Omega arag, with greater net calcium carbonate dissolution under more acidic conditions. Daytime calcification however, is not detectably affected by Omega arag. If the short-term sensitivity of community calcification to Omega arag is representative of the long-term sensitivity to ocean acidification, nighttime dissolution in these intertidal ecosystems could more than double by 2050, with significant ecological and economic consequences.

Using Bird Distributions to Assess Extinction Risk and Identify Conservation Priorities in Biodiversity Hotspots

Habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation threaten the World’s ecosystems and species. These, and other threats, will likely be exacerbated by climate change. Due to a limited budget for conservation, we are forced to prioritize a few areas over others. These places are selected based on their uniqueness and vulnerability. One of the most famous examples is the biodiversity hotspots: areas where large quantities of endemic species meet alarming rates of habitat loss. Most of these places are in the tropics, where species have smaller ranges, diversity is higher, and ecosystems are most threatened.

Species distributions are useful to understand ecological theory and evaluate extinction risk. Small-ranged species, or those endemic to one place, are more vulnerable to extinction than widely distributed species. However, current range maps often overestimate the distribution of species, including areas that are not within the suitable elevation or habitat for a species. Consequently, assessment of extinction risk using these maps could underestimate vulnerability.

In order to be effective in our quest to conserve the World’s most important places we must: 1) Translate global and national priorities into practical local actions, 2) Find synergies between biodiversity conservation and human welfare, 3) Evaluate the different dimensions of threats, in order to design effective conservation measures and prepare for future threats, and 4) Improve the methods used to evaluate species’ extinction risk and prioritize areas for conservation. The purpose of this dissertation is to address these points in Colombia and other global biodiversity hotspots.

In Chapter 2, I identified the global, strategic conservation priorities and then downscaled to practical local actions within the selected priorities in Colombia. I used existing range maps of 171 bird species to identify priority conservation areas that would protect the greatest number of species at risk in Colombia (endemic and small-ranged species). The Western Andes had the highest concentrations of such species—100 in total—but the lowest densities of national parks. I then adjusted the priorities for this region by refining these species ranges by selecting only areas of suitable elevation and remaining habitat. The estimated ranges of these species shrank by 18–100% after accounting for habitat and suitable elevation. Setting conservation priorities on the basis of currently available range maps excluded priority areas in the Western Andes and, by extension, likely elsewhere and for other taxa. By incorporating detailed maps of remaining natural habitats, I made practical recommendations for conservation actions. One recommendation was to restore forest connections to a patch of cloud forest about to become isolated from the main Andes.

For Chapter 3, I identified areas where bird conservation met ecosystem service protection in the Central Andes of Colombia. Inspired by the November 11th (2011) landslide event near Manizales, and the current poor results of Colombia’s Article 111 of Law 99 of 1993 as a conservation measure in this country, I set out to prioritize conservation and restoration areas where landslide prevention would complement bird conservation in the Central Andes. This area is one of the most biodiverse places on Earth, but also one of the most threatened. Using the case of the Rio Blanco Reserve, near Manizales, I identified areas for conservation where endemic and small-range bird diversity was high, and where landslide risk was also high. I further prioritized restoration areas by overlapping these conservation priorities with a forest cover map. Restoring forests in bare areas of high landslide risk and important bird diversity yields benefits for both biodiversity and people. I developed a simple landslide susceptibility model using slope, forest cover, aspect, and stream proximity. Using publicly available bird range maps, refined by elevation, I mapped concentrations of endemic and small-range bird species. I identified 1.54 km2 of potential restoration areas in the Rio Blanco Reserve, and 886 km2 in the Central Andes region. By prioritizing these areas, I facilitate the application of Article 111 which requires local and regional governments to invest in land purchases for the conservation of watersheds.

Chapter 4 dealt with elevational ranges of montane birds and the impact of lowland deforestation on their ranges in the Western Andes of Colombia, an important biodiversity hotspot. Using point counts and mist-nets, I surveyed six altitudinal transects spanning 2200 to 2800m. Three transects were forested from 2200 to 2800m, and three were partially deforested with forest cover only above 2400m. I compared abundance-weighted mean elevation, minimum elevation, and elevational range width. In addition to analyzing the effect of deforestation on 134 species, I tested its impact within trophic guilds and habitat preference groups. Abundance-weighted mean and minimum elevations were not significantly different between forested and partially deforested transects. Range width was marginally different: as expected, ranges were larger in forested transects. Species in different trophic guilds and habitat preference categories showed different trends. These results suggest that deforestation may affect species’ elevational ranges, even within the forest that remains. Climate change will likely exacerbate harmful impacts of deforestation on species’ elevational distributions. Future conservation strategies need to account for this by protecting connected forest tracts across a wide range of elevations.

In Chapter 5, I refine the ranges of 726 species from six biodiversity hotspots by suitable elevation and habitat. This set of 172 bird species for the Atlantic Forest, 138 for Central America, 100 for the Western Andes of Colombia, 57 for Madagascar, 102 for Sumatra, and 157 for Southeast Asia met the criteria for range size, endemism, threat, and forest use. Of these 586 species, the Red List deems 108 to be threatened: 15 critically endangered, 29 endangered, and 64 vulnerable. When ranges are refined by elevational limits and remaining forest cover, 10 of those critically endangered species have ranges < 100km2, but then so do 2 endangered species, seven vulnerable, and eight non-threatened ones. Similarly, 4 critically endangered species, 20 endangered, and 12 vulnerable species have refined ranges < 5000km2, but so do 66 non-threatened species. A striking 89% of these species I have classified in higher threat categories have <50% of their refined ranges inside protected areas. I find that for 43% of the species I assessed, refined range sizes fall within thresholds that typically have higher threat categories than their current assignments. I recommend these species for closer inspection by those who assess risk. These assessments are not only important on a species-by-species basis, but by combining distributions of threatened species, I create maps of conservation priorities. They differ significantly from those created from unrefined ranges.

Macroinvertebrate Diversity in Urban and Rural Ponds: Implications for Freshwater Biodiversity Conservation

Ponds are among the most biodiverse freshwater ecosystems, yet face significant threats from removal, habitat degradation and a lack of legislative protection globally. Information regarding the habitat quality and biodiversity of ponds across a range of land uses is vital for the long term conservation and management of ecological resources. In this study we examine the biodiversity and conservation value of macroinvertebrates from 91 lowland ponds across 3 land use types (35 floodplain meadow, 15 arable and 41 urban ponds). A total of 224 macroinvertebrate taxa were recorded across all ponds, with urban ponds and floodplain ponds supporting a greater richness than arable ponds at the landscape scale. However, at the alpha scale, urban ponds supported lower faunal diversity (mean: 22 taxa) than floodplain (mean: 32 taxa) or arable ponds (mean: 30 taxa). Floodplain ponds were found to support taxonomically distinct communities compared to arable and urban ponds. A total of 13 macroinvertebrate taxa with a national conservation designation were recorded across the study area and 12 ponds (11 floodplain and 1 arable pond) supported assemblages of high or very high conservation value. Pond conservation currently relies on the designation of individual ponds based on very high biodiversity or the presence of taxa with specific conservation designations. However, this site specific approach fails to acknowledge the contribution of ponds to freshwater biodiversity at the landscape scale. Ponds are highly appropriate sites outside of protected areas (urban/arable), with which the general public are already familiar, for local and landscape scale conservation of freshwater habitats.