Considerações sobre os métodos de dimensionamento estrutural de pavimentos com camadas recicladas a frio com espuma de asfalto.

A reciclagem profunda com espuma de asfalto tem sido uma alternativa de sucesso para a restauração de pavimentos degradados. Em relação às soluções tradicionais de reabilitação, como os recapeamentos, tem a vantagem de proporcionar a correção de defeitos em camadas inferiores, com a manutenção ou pequena elevação do greide da pista, além de ganhos ambientais, como um menor consumo de materiais virgens da natureza e redução do volume de material descartado. Entretanto, no Brasil não há método para dimensionamento estrutural para esta tecnologia, o que dificulta seu emprego. Para o desenvolvimento de um procedimento de dimensionamento que contemple este tipo de solução, foram estudados métodos presentes na bibliografia internacional: guia da AASHTO de 1993 e Caltrans, dos EUA, TRL386 e TRL611, da Inglaterra, as duas versões do guia sul-africano TG2 e os métodos oriundos do Austroads, tanto o procedimento interino de 2011 como adaptações de órgãos da Austrália e Nova Zelândia. Observou-se divergência de opiniões quanto ao comportamento do material reciclado com espuma de asfalto. Alguns órgãos e autores consideram o comportamento do mesmo mais próximo às misturas asfálticas, sendo o mecanismo de falha o trincamento, e outros o definem como semelhante a um material granular modificado com alta coesão e ruptura devido às deformações permanentes. Correlaciona-se tal associação ao teor de espuma usualmente utilizado nas obras rodoviárias. Outros aspectos que se destacam para este tipo de base são o ganho de resistência ao longo do tempo devido à cura, mesmo com início da operação da rodovia e a importância da infraestrutura remanescente no dimensionamento. Tais fatos foram corroborados pelos estudos de caso e resultados do trecho experimental construído na Rodovia Ayrton Senna - SP 070, monitorado por meio de ensaios deflectométricos com FWD durante um ano. Como resultado do trabalho, foi proposto um procedimento para o dimensionamento estrutural de pavimentos com camadas recicladas a frio com espuma de asfalto utilizando dados deflectométricos que atende o método do Manual de Pavimentação do Departamento Nacional de Infraestrutura de Transportes (DNIT) e incorpora diferentes aspectos na análise mecanicista. Outras conclusões são a viabilidade técnica a longo prazo da solução mencionada e a importância do controle tecnológico, com ênfase para o monitoramento deflectométrico nos primeiros meses de operação do pavimento para averiguar a evolução da cura do material.

Comportamento mecânico e desempenho estrutural de materiais reciclados e estabilizados com espuma de asfalto.

Em busca de soluções estruturais para restauração de pavimentos rodoviários que que sejam eficientes, mas ao mesmo tempo que sejam econômicas e impactem o mínimo possível na dinâmica de operação da malha rodoviária, tem sido difundida a metodologia de reciclagem a frio de pavimentos com a estabilização com espuma de asfalto. A redução de custos devido a reutilização de material e a menor necessidade de transporte de insumos, além da possibilidade de realização da restauração em um curto espaço de tempo, têm contribuído para a crescente utilização do processo. Este trabalho tem como objetivo avaliar o desempenho e o comportamento mecânico de uma mistura reciclada estabilizada com espuma asfalto, para melhor entender os efeitos do confinamento e do teor de umidade do material, visto que este passa por um processo de cura quando já em serviço. Foi acompanhado um trecho experimental onde o pavimento foi restaurado com a aplicação de uma base reciclada estabilizada com espuma de asfalto. O segmento foi monitorado através do controle tecnológico de execução e de levantamentos deflectométricos com FWD. Verificou-se que as deflexões após quase 24 meses da execução do trecho reduziram consideravelmente. Paralelamente, foram realizados ensaios de resistência à tração por compressão diametral, módulo de resiliência triaxial e de deformação permanente para diferentes procedimentos de cura para verificação do efeito da saída da água nas mudanças de comportamento mecânico do material. Verificou-se ainda o efeito das tensões de confinamento no módulo de resiliência de materiais estabilizados com espuma de asfalto e determinaram-se os parâmetros de cisalhamento do material através de ensaiosTriaxiais Monotônicos. Pode-se concluir que a cura é uma consideração importante tanto com relação a sua duração, quanto com relação ao seu efeito no comportamento do material.

Mechanistic modeling of fracture in asphalt mixtures under compressive loading

When an asphalt mixture is subjected to a destructive compressive load, it experiences a sequence of three deformation stages, as follows: the (1) primary, (2) secondary, and (3) tertiary stages. Most literature research focuses on plastic deformation in the primary and secondary stages, such as prediction of the flow number, which is in fact the initiation of the tertiary stage. However, little research effort has been reported on the mechanistic modeling of the damage that occurs in the tertiary stage. The main objective of this paper is to provide a mechanistic characterizing method for the damage modeling of asphalt mixtures in the tertiary stage. The preliminary study conducted by the writers illustrates that deformation during the tertiary flow of the asphalt mixtures is principally caused by the formation and propagation of cracks, which was signaled by the increase of the phase angle in the tertiary phase. The strain caused by the growth of cracks is the viscofracture strain, which can be obtained by conducting the strain decomposition of the measured total strain in the destructive compressive test. The viscofracture strain is employed in the research reported in this paper to mechanistically characterize the time-dependent fracture (viscofracture) of asphalt mixtures in compression. By using the dissipated pseudostrain energy-balance principle, the damage density and true stress are determined and both are demonstrated to increase with load cycles in the tertiary stage. The increased true stress yields extra viscoplastic strain, which is the reason why the permanent deformation is accelerated by the occurrence of cracks. To characterize the evolution of the viscofracture in the asphalt mixtures in compression, a pseudo J-integral Paris' law in terms of damage density is proposed and the material constants in the Paris' law are determined, which can be employed to predict the fracture of asphalt mixtures in compression. © 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.

The effect of warm-up intensity on range of motion and anaerobic performance

Although there is a paucity of scientific support for the benefits of warm-up, athletes commonly warm up prior to activity with the intention of improving performance and reducing the incidence of injuries. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of warm-up intensity on both range of motion (ROM) and anaerobic performance. Nine males (age = 21.7 +/- 1.6 years, height = 1.77 +/- 0.04 m, weight = 80.2 +/- 6.8 kg, and VO2max = 60.4 +/- 5.4 ml/kg/min) completed four trials. Each trial consisted of hip, knee, and ankle ROM evaluation using an electronic inclinometer and an anaerobic capacity test on the treadmill (time to fatigue at 13 km/hr and 20% grade). Subjects underwent no warm-up or a warm-up of 15 minutes running at 60, 70 or 80% VO2max followed by a series of lower limb stretches. Intensity of warm-up had little effect on ROM, since ankle dorsiflexion and hip extension significantly increased in all warm-up conditions, hip flexion significantly increased only after the 80% VO2max warm-up, and knee flexion did not change after any warm-up. Heart rate and body temperature were significantly increased (p < 0.05) prior to anaerobic performance for each of the warm-up conditions, but anaerobic performance improved significantly only after warm-up at 60% VO2max (10%) and 70% VO2max (13%). A 15-minute warm-up at an intensity of 60-70% VO2max is therefore recommended to improve ROM and enhance subsequent anaerobic performance.

Fine scale characterization of surface/subsurface and nanosized debris particles on worn Cu-10 % Pb nanocomposites

The identification of the damage mechanisms involved in the wear process demands the finer scale characterization of the surface, as well as the subsurface region of the wear scar region, and to this end, this article discusses the results obtained with Cu-10 wt% Pb-based metallic nanocomposites using a host of characterization techniques, including transmission electron microscopy and ion milling microscopy. Apart from finer scale characterization to understand deformation and cracking during the wear process, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis of wear debris confirms the occurrence of oxidation of Pb phase to Pb3O4. In order to understand the role of oxides on friction and wear, sliding wear tests in argon were also carried out and such tests did not result in the formation of any tribo-oxides, as confirmed using electron probe microanalysis. Conclusively, oxidative wear is attributed as the dominant wear mechanism in ambient conditions for Cu-10 wt% Pb composite.

Design of granular pavements

The use of high-quality quarried crushed rock aggregates is generally required to comply with current specifications for unbound granular materials (UGMs) in pavements. The source of these high-quality materials can be a long distance from the site, resulting in high transportation costs. The use of more local sources of marginal materials or the use of secondary aggregates is not allowed if they do not fully comply with existing specifications. These materials can, however, be assessed for their suitability for use in a pavement by considering performance criteria such as resistance to permanent deformation and degradation instead of relying on compliance with inflexible specifications. The final thickness of the asphalt cover and the pavement depth are governed by conventional pavement design methods, which consider the number of vehicle passes, subgrade strength, and some material property, commonly the California bearing ratio or resilient modulus. A pavement design method that includes as a design criterion an assessment of the resistance to deformation of a UGM in a pavement structure at a particular stress state is proposed. The particular stress state at which the aggregate is to perform in an acceptable way is related to the in situ stress, that is, the stress that the aggregate is anticipated to experience at a particular depth in the pavement. Because the stresses are more severe closer to the pavement surface, the aggregates should be better able to resist these stresses the closer they are laid to the surface in the pavement. This method was applied to two Northern Ireland aggregates of different quality (NI Good and NI Poor). The results showed that the NI Poor aggregate performed at an acceptable level with respect to permanent deformation, provided that a minimum of 70 mm of asphalt cover was provided. It was predicted that the NI Good material would require 60 mm of asphalt cover.

Influence Of Additives On The Drain Down Characteristics Of Stone Matrix Asphalt Mixtures

In Kerala highways, where traditional dense graded mixtures are used for the surface courses, major distress is due to moisture induced damages. Development of stabilized Stone Matrix Asphalt (SMA) mixtures for improved pavement performance has been the focus of research all over the world for the past few decades. Many successful attempts are made to stabilize SMA mixtures with synthetic fibres and polymers. India, being an agricultural economy produces fairly huge quantity of natural fibres such as coconut, sisal, banana, sugar cane, jute etc.. Now- a -days the disposal of waste plastics is a major concern for an eco- friendly sustainable environment. This paper focuses on the influence of additives like coir, sisal, banana fibres (natural fibres), waste plastics (waste material) and polypropylene (polymer) on the drain down characteristics of SMA mixtures. A preliminary investigation is conducted to characterize the materials used in this study. Drain down sensitivity tests are conducted to study the bleeding phenomena and drain down of SMA mixtures. Based on the drain down characteristics of the various stabilized mixtures it is inferred that the optimum fibre content is 0.3% by weight of mixture for all fibre mixtures irrespective of the type of fibre. For waste plastics and polypropylene stabilized SMA mixtures, the optimum additive contents are respectively 7% and 5% by weight of mixture. Due to the absorptive nature of fibres, fibre stabilizers are found to be more effective in reducing the drain down of the SMA mixture. The drain values for the waste plastics mix is within the required specification range. The coir fibre additive is the best among the fibres investigated. Sisal and banana fibre mixtures showed almost the same characteristics on stabilization.

Effect of mean stress on multiaxial ratcheting life: a simplified life prediction model based on average equivalent stress amplitude

This article proposes a model to predict uniaxial and multiaxial ratcheting life by addressing the three primary parameters that influence failure life: fatigue damage, ratcheting damage and the multiaxial loading path. These three factors are addressed in the present model by (a) the stress amplitude for fatigue damage, (b) mean stress-dependent Goodman equation for ratcheting damage and (c) an inherent weight factor based on average equivalent stress to account for the multiaxial loading. The proposed model requires only two material constants which can be easily determined from uniaxial symmetric stress-controlled fatigue tests. Experimental ratcheting life data collected from the literature for 1025 and 42CrMo steel under multiaxial proportional and nonproportional constant amplitude loading ratcheting with triangular sinusoidal and trapezoidal waveform (i.e. linear, rhombic, circular, elliptical and square stress paths) have shown good agreement with the proposed model.

Obtenção de emulsões asfálticas modificadas utilizando resíduos industriais

The main objective of this research was the development and characterization of conventional and modified cationic asphalt emulsions. The asphalt emulsions were developed by using the Petroleum Asphalt Cement (CAP 50-70) from Fazenda Belém (Petrobras -Aracati-Ce). The first step in this research was the development of the oil phase (asphalt + solvent) and the aqueous phase (water + emulsifying agent + acid + additives), separately. During the experiments for the obtaining of the conventional asphalt emulsion, the concentration of each constituent was evaluated. For the obtaining of the oil phase, kerosene was used as solvent at 15 and 20 wt.%. For the development of the aqueous phase, the emulsifying agent was used at 0.3 and 3.0 wt.%, whereas the acid and the additive were set at 0.3 wt.%. The percentage of asphalt in the asphalt emulsion was varied in 50, 55, and 60 wt.% and the heating temperature was set at 120 °C. The aqueous phase in the asphalt emulsion was varied from 16.4 to 34.1 wt.% and the heating temperature was set at 60 °C. After the obtaining of the oil and the aqueous phases, they were added at a colloidal mill, remaining under constant stirring and heating during 15 minutes. Each asphalt emulsion was evaluated considering: sieve analysis, Saybolt Furol viscosity, pH determination, settlement and storage stability, residue by evaporation, and penetration of residue. After the characterization of conventional emulsions, it was chosen the one that presented all properties in accordance with Brazilian specifications (DNER-EM 369/97). This emulsion was used for the development of all modified asphalt emulsions. Three polymeric industrial residues were used as modifier agents: one from a clothing button industry (cutouts of clothing buttons) and two from a footwear industry (cutouts of sandals and tennis shoes soles), all industries located at Rio Grande do Norte State (Brazil).The polymeric residues were added into the asphalt emulsion (1 to 6 wt.%) and the same characterization rehearsals were accomplished. After characterization, it were developed the cold-mix asphalts. It was used the Marshall mix design. For cold-mix asphalt using the conventional emulsion, it was used 5, 6 and 7 wt.% asphalt emulsion. The conventional mixtures presented stability values according Brazilian specification (DNER-369/97). For mixtures containing asphalt modified emulsions, it was observed that the best results were obtained with emulsions modified by button residue

Low dynamic muscle strength and its associations with fatigue, functional performance, and quality of life in premenopausal patients with systemic lupus erythematosus and low disease activity: a case–control study

Abstract Background The purpose of the present study was to compare dynamic muscle strength, functional performance, fatigue, and quality of life in premenopausal systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients with low disease activity versus matched-healthy controls and to determine the association of dynamic muscle strength with fatigue, functional performance, and quality of life in SLE patients. Methods We evaluated premenopausal (18–45 years) SLE patients with low disease activity (Systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity index [SLEDAI]: mean 1.5 ± 1.2). The control (n = 25) and patient (n = 25) groups were matched by age, physical characteristics, and the level of physical activities in daily life (International Physical Activity Questionnaire IPAQ). Both groups had not participated in regular exercise programs for at least six months prior to the study. Dynamic muscle strength was assessed by one-repetition maximum (1-RM) tests. Functional performance was assessed by the Timed Up and Go (TUG), in 30-s test a chair stand and arm curl using a 2-kg dumbbell and balance test, handgrip strength and a sit-and-reach flexibility test. Quality of life (SF-36) and fatigue were also measured. Results The SLE patients showed significantly lower dynamic muscle strength in all exercises (leg press 25.63%, leg extension 11.19%, leg curl 15.71%, chest press 18.33%, lat pulldown 13.56%, 1-RM total load 18.12%, P < 0.001-0.02) compared to the controls. The SLE patients also had lower functional performance, greater fatigue and poorer quality of life. In addition, fatigue, SF-36 and functional performance accounted for 52% of the variance in dynamic muscle strength in the SLE patients. Conclusions Premenopausal SLE patients with low disease activity showed lower dynamic muscle strength, along with increased fatigue, reduced functional performance, and poorer quality of life when compared to matched controls.

Caratterizzazione avanzata in laboratorio di materie prime secondarie rigenerate o stabilizzate con emulsione di bitume e leganti cementizi

Il recupero dei materiali di scarto è un aspetto di grande attualità in campo stradale, così come negli altri ambiti dell’ingegneria civile. L’attenzione della ricerca e degli esperti del settore è rivolta all’affinamento di tecniche di riciclaggio che riducano l’impatto ambientale senza compromettere le prestazioni meccaniche finali. Tali indagini cercano di far corrispondere le necessità di smaltimento dei rifiuti con quelle dell’industria infrastrutturale, legate al reperimento di materiali da costruzione tecnicamente idonei ed economicamente vantaggiosi. Attualmente sono già diversi i tipi di prodotti rigenerati e riutilizzati nella realizzazione delle pavimentazioni stradali e numerosi sono anche quelli di nuova introduzione in fase di sperimentazione. In particolare, accanto ai materiali derivanti dalle operazioni di recupero della rete viaria, è opportuno considerare anche quelli provenienti dall’esercizio delle attività di trasporto, il quale comporta ogni anno il raggiungimento della fine della vita utile per centinaia di migliaia di tonnellate di pneumatici di gomma. L’obiettivo della presente analisi sperimentale è quello di fornire indicazioni e informazioni in merito alla tecnica di riciclaggio a freddo con emulsione bituminosa e cemento, valutando la possibilità di applicazione di tale metodologia in combinazione con il polverino di gomma, ottenuto dal recupero degli pneumatici fuori uso (PFU). La ricerca si distingue per una duplice valenza: la prima è quella di promuovere ulteriormente la tecnica di riciclaggio a freddo, che si sta imponendo per i suoi numerosi vantaggi economici ed ambientali, legati soprattutto alla temperatura d’esercizio; la seconda è quella di sperimentare l’utilizzo del polverino di gomma, nelle due forme di granulazione tradizionale e criogenica, additivato a miscele costituite interamente da materiale proveniente da scarifica di pavimentazioni esistenti e stabilizzate con diverse percentuali di emulsione di bitume e di legante cementizio.

Evaluation of the performance and cost-effectiveness of pavement sections containing open-graded base courses

Moisture induced distresses have been the prevalent distress type affecting the deterioration of both asphalt and concrete pavement sections. While various surface techniques have been employed over the years to minimize the ingress of moisture into the pavement structural sections, subsurface drainage components like open-graded base courses remain the best alternative in minimizing the time the pavement structural sections are exposed to saturated conditions. This research therefore focuses on assessing the performance and cost-effectiveness of pavement sections containing both treated and untreated open-graded aggregate base materials. Three common roadway aggregates comprising of two virgin aggregates and one recycled aggregate were investigated using four open-ended gradations and two binder types. Laboratory tests were conducted to determine the hydraulic, mechanical and durability characteristics of treated and untreated open-graded mixes made from these three aggregate types. Results of the experimental program show that for the same gradation and mix design types, limestone samples have the greatest drainage capacity, stability to traffic loads and resistance to degradation from environmental conditions like freeze-thaw. However, depending on the gradation and mix design used, all three aggregate types namely limestone, natural gravel and recycled concrete can meet the minimum coefficient of hydraulic conductivity required for good drainage in most pavements. Tests results for both asphalt and cement treated open-graded samples indicate that a percent air void content within the range of 15-25 will produce a treated open-graded base course with sufficient drainage capacity and also long term stability under both traffic and environmental loads. Using the new Mechanistic and Empirical Design Guide software, computer simulations of pavement performance were conducted on pavement sections containing these open-graded base aggregate base materials to determine how the MEPDG predicted pavement performance is sensitive to drainage. Using three truck traffic levels and four climatic regions, results of the computer simulations indicate that the predicted performance was not sensitive to the drainage characteristics of the open-graded base course. Based on the result of the MEPDG predicted pavement performance, the cost-effectiveness of the pavement sections with open-graded base was computed on the assumption that the increase service life experienced by these sections was attributed to the positive effects of subsurface drainage. The two cost analyses used gave two contrasting results with the one indicating that the inclusion of open-graded base courses can lead to substantial savings.

Impact parameters in relation to bruising and other fruit properties.

Impact response in fruits, primarily appl.es and pears (Pomaceae fruits), has been studied during the last five years. Using a laboratory impact testing device and also free-fall tests of instrumented apples, a significant body of results has been established, relative to the parameters which best characterize the impact response of these materials, and to their correlation with bruise damage, variety and ripeness level of the fruits. Bruise damage, measured as the size and/or volume of the affected fruit tissue is related primarily to applied energy (i.e. mainly drop height) for a given variety at a given ripeness stage. The relevant impact response parameters are maximum deformation (DM), permanent deformation (DP), maximum impulse (IM), maximum impact force (FM), maximum value of the force/time slope during impact (F/T) and impact time (T). The effect of ripeness differences was also studied in selected varieties of pears, being the most relevant parameters: maximum force (FM) and F/T slope.

Response of asphalt concrete pavements to dynamic truck loads. Final report.

California Department of Transportation, Sacramento

Reverse engineering and finite element analysis of a 3-wheeler automotive structure

Auto rickshaws (3-wheelers) are the most sought after transport among the urban and rural poor in India. The assembly of the vehicle involves assemblies of several major components. The L-angle is the component that connects the front panel with the vehicle floor. Current L-angle part has been observed to experience permanent deformation failure over period of time. This paper studies the effect of the addition of stiffeners on the L-angle to increase the strength of the component. A physical model of the L-angle was reversed engineered and modelled in CAD before static loading analysis were carried out on the model using finite element analysis. The modified L-angle fitted with stiffeners was shown to be able to withstand more load compare to previous design.