Identifying regions for conservation of sloth bears through occupancy modelling in north-eastern Karnataka, India

In the absence of information on species in decline with contracting ranges, management should emphasize remaining populations and protection of their habitats. Threatened by anthropogenic pressure including habitat degradation and loss, sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) in India have become limited in range, habitat, and population size. We identified ecological and anthropogenic determinants of occurrence within an occupancy framework to evaluate habitat suitability of non-protected regions (with sloth bears) in northeastern Karnataka, India. We employed a systematic sampling methodology to yield presence absence data to examine a priori hypotheses of determinants that affected occupancy. These covariates were broadly classified as habitat or anthropogenic factors. Mean number of termite mounds and trees positively influenced sloth bear occupancy, and grazing pressure expounded by mean number of livestock dung affected it negatively. Also, mean percentage of shrub coverage had no impact on bear inhabitance. The best fitting model further predicted habitats in Bukkasagara, Agoli, and Benakal reserved forests to have 38%, 75%, and 88%, respectively, of their sampled grid cells with high occupancies (>0.70) albeit little or no legal protection. We recommend a conservation strategy that includes protection of vegetation stand-structure, maintenance of soil moisture, and enrichment of habitat for the long-term welfare of this species.

La evaluación de los úrsidos en medios karsticos de la Cornisa Cantábrica

681 p.

食肉目哺乳动物（Carnivora）的分子进化研究

追溯生物界不同生物类型的起源及进化关系，即重建生物类群的系统发育树是进化生物学领域中一个十分重要的内容，并日益受到广泛的关注。美国和一些欧洲国家已率先启动了类似人类基因组计划的"生命之树，，计划（TreeofLife，TOL），将对生物学研究的发展产生深远影响。本研究瞄准了"生命之树"这一国际关注的焦点问题，选择具有重要进化理论意义和保护生物学价值的食肉目进行研究，除采用流行的多个线粒体基因外，还筛选多个有效的核基因标记，通过多基因序列数据的整合分析，构建可靠的食肉目分子系统树。此外，我们在食肉目部分物种的一个内含子区域发现了SINE家族的插入，考虑到这个内含子区域可能是SINE家族序列的一个插入热点，我们还增加了一些胎盘类哺乳动物目对这个内含子区域发生的多次SINE家族插入进行了详尽的进化研究。世界现生食肉目动物共计有11科280种，一般将它们归为两大超科，犬型超科（熊科，犬科，洗熊科，锄科，海狮科，海象科和海豹科）和猫型超科（灵猫科、猫科、鼠狗科和獴科）。犬型超科由于包含的物种种类繁多而且形态差异极"大，因此物种之间的系统发育关系方面争论颇多，难以解决。我们选用四个核基因序列片段和一个线粒体蛋白编码基因（共4417个碱基）对16个大型超科食肉目代表物种进行研究，探讨这一超科中科间的系统发育关系以及两个熊猫（大，小熊猫）的位置。结果表明不同基因在各分枝上表现出不同的解决能力，核基因和线粒体基因不含有冲突的，而是含有互补的系统发育信号，因而当把它们合并在一起进行系统发育分析时得到了一个大部分分枝都有很高支持程度的系统树拓扑结构。系统发育重建支持犬科是犬型超科中最早分歧的谱系，洗熊科和勃科的关系最近。小熊猫是洗熊科和触科的姐妹群，大熊猫是熊科中最早分歧的成员。鳍脚类（海狮科，海象科和海豹科）和熊科依次是由洗熊科，融科和小熊猫组成的进化枝最近的姐妹群。其中，鳍脚类和熊科的系统发育学位置在合并所有基因片段进行的ML和贝叶斯分析方法中都有较高的支持率和后验概率，但是在孵分析中的支持率却很低。因此，鳍脚类，熊科和由洗熊科，融科，小熊猫组成的进化枝三者之间的系统发育关系的解决将是以后食肉目犬型超科科水平系统发育学研究的趋势和重点。食肉目中不仅各科之间的进化关系扑朔迷离，科内的系统发育关系也很不清楚，尤其是熊科和猫科。因为这两个科都是在非常近期才发生物种分化的类群，代表了快速的进化辐射和间隔时间非常短的物种形成事件，因而重建科内各物种之间的系统发育关系对于系统学家来说是一项艰巨，极富挑战性的任务，也是造成熊科和猫科物种系统发育关系一直无法得到完全解决的重要原因。我们首次从两个核基因的角度，并与以前发表的五个线粒体基因数据进行单独和合并分析来探讨所有熊科物种（8个）的系统发育关系（约4kb）。结果不仅证实了目前普遍接受的观点，包括眼镜熊是除大熊猫以外最早分歧的熊科物种，以及棕熊和北极熊的姐妹群关系，而且进一步支持了亚洲黑熊和美洲黑熊之间的紧密关系，但是就在大多数以前的线粒体基因研究暗示懒熊极有可能是Ursus属中分歧最早的熊科物种时，我们的核基因分析提出新的假说，强烈支持懒熊和马来熊之间的姐妹群关系，使得懒熊和马来熊的系统发育位置又要成为将来熊科系统发育学研究中讨论的热点。另外，我们也探讨了核基因和线粒体基因表现出不一致系统发育信号的可能原因。猫科物种一般分成三大谱系：家猫谱系，豹谱系和虎猫谱系。其中由Panthera属和一些中等体型大小的猫类组成的豹谱系分化时间最近而且包含的物种最多，因此围绕它的系统发育学未解决的问题也最多。我们首次使用三个核基因对猫科中豹谱系部分物种系统发育关系进行探讨，同时还测定了两个完整线粒体编码基因，并结合以前发表的其它四个线粒体基因片段进行单独和结合分析，了解猫科豹谱系物种的进化历史。另外，我们还比较了这9个基因序列片段在进化特征和猫科系统发育关系应用价值方面的异同点。通过对14个猫科部分物种，主要为豹谱系物种的多个线粒体和核基因序列片段的综合分析，得到了一些非常有价值的重要结论，包括Panthera属的单源性以及Panthera属内部物种之间新的系统发育关系，云豹与Panthera属关系最近，美洲狮和猎豹是姐妹群，兔孙仍然属于家猫谱系等等。本研究中的核基因DNA在追溯如此近期才分化的猫科类群过程中积累的序列差异较少，因而贡献非常有限，它们可能会更适合用来解决食肉目中更高水平的物种之间系统发育关系。此外，当我们使用FGB基因第七内含子进行食肉目犬型超科各科和猫科部分物种的系统发育关系研究时，发现犬科代表物种和两个猫科物种中的不同位置上都发现了SINE片段的插入。我们又增加了除食肉目以外的部分哺乳动物目代表物种（共30个分类群）来进一步分析FGB基因第七内含子发生的多次SINEs家族插入事件。我们的结果表明：在所有哺乳动物内含子中的直源位置都发现了起源于tRNA的M琅元件，除了啮齿目。研究发现啮齿目小鼠中较高的序列变异速率以及大鼠中随着寄主DNA的大段丢失而发生了罕有的遗失是造成啮齿目中MIR缺失的原因。此外，在我们分析的12个哺乳动物目中，食肉目，偶蹄目和兔形目的FGB基因第七内含子不同位置还发现了至少五次谱系特异性SINE家族的独立插入事件。在食肉目中，三个独立的CANSINEs插入支持了这个SINE家族在食肉目所有类群中都有分布的假说（即"pan-camivores"假说）。研究中最重要的发现就是那些谱系特异的sINE家族有插入到己存在的MIRs内部或MIRs附近的强烈倾向，表明MIR很有可能是其它SINEs连续插入的"热点"区域，因而使这个内含子区域有如此多的逆转座子插入。我们认为SINEs要比以前所意识到的具有更大的插入"灵活性"和区域"特异性"。另外，本论文还重点介绍了现代系统发育学中常用的系统发育重建方法和策．略以及随着基因组时代的到来，"系统发育基因组学（P坤logenomics））'这门崭新的交叉学科在"重建生命之树"方面所具有的巨大优势和潜力。

Presence of cave bears in western Austria before the onset of the Last Glacial Maximum: new radiocarbon dates and palaeoclimatic considerations

Tischoferhohle and Pendling-Barenhohle near Kufstein, Tyrol, are among the only locations where remains of cave bear, Ursus spelaeus-group, were found in the western part of Austria. One sample from each site was radiocarbon-dated four decades ago to ca. 28 C-14 ka BP. Here we report that attempts to date additional samples from Pendling-Barenhohle have failed due to the lack of collagen, casting doubts on the validity of the original measurement. We also unsuccessfully tried to date flowstone clasts embedded in the bone-bearing sediment to provide maximum constraints on the age of this sediment. Ten cave bear bones from Tischoferhohle showing good collagen preservation were radiocarbon-dated to 31.1-39.9 C-14 ka BP, again pointing towards an age underestimation by the original radiocarbon-dated sample from this site. These new dates from Tischoferhohle are therefore currently the only reliable cave bear dates in western Austria and constrain the interval of cave occupation to 44.3-33.5 cal ka BP. We re-calibrate and re-evaluate dates of alpine cave bear samples in the context of available palaeoclimate information from the greater alpine region covering the transition into the Last Glacial Maximum, eventually leading to the demise of this megafauna.

Successful carnivore identification with faecal DNA across a fragmented Amazonian landscape

The use of scat surveys to obtain DNA has been well documented in temperate areas, where DNA preservation may be more effective than in tropical forests. Samples obtained in the tropics are often exposed to high humidity, warm temperatures, frequent rain and intense sunlight, all of which can rapidly degrade DNA. Despite these potential problems, we demonstrate successful mtDNA amplification and sequencing for faeces of carnivores collected in tropical conditions and quantify how sample condition and environmental variables influence the success of PCR amplification and species identification. Additionally, the feasibility of genotyping nuclear microsatellites from jaguar (Panthera onca) faeces was investigated. From October 2007 to December 2008, 93 faecal samples were collected in the southern Brazilian Amazon. A total of eight carnivore species was successfully identified from 71% of all samples obtained. Information theoretic analysis revealed that the number of PCR attempts before a successful sequence was an important negative predictor across all three responses (success of species identification, success of species identification from the first sequence and PCR amplification success), whereas the relative importance of the other three predictors (sample condition, season and distance from forest edge) varied between the three responses. Nuclear microsatellite amplification from jaguar faeces had lower success rates (15-44%) compared with those of the mtDNA marker. Our results show that DNA obtained from faecal samples works efficiently for carnivore species identification in the Amazon forest and also shows potential for nuclear DNA analysis, thus providing a valuable tool for genetic, ecological and conservation studies.

A Preliminary Note on Trichinosis Investigations in Alaska

Trichinosis in the arctic regions of the world has received considerable attention during recent years, particularly since the work of Roth (1948) in Greenland. In Connell's (1949) review of arctic trichinosis some Alaskan and Canadian records were included but, until now, little has been known of the status of the disease in Alaska. Information available at the present time indicates that the incidence of trichinosis is high in circumpolar carnivores and that marine mammals have a definite place in its epizootiology. Present knowledge cannot explain the survival of trichinosis in marine mammal populations, but it is evident that they may serve as important sources of human infection. Up to the present time the following mammals from Alaska have been found to be infected: From the arctic coast-polar bear, Thalarctas maritimus; arctic fox, Alapex lagapus irmuitus; red fox, Vulpes fulva alascemis; white whale, Delphinapterus leucas; Eskimo dog. From south of the Brooks Range--brown and grizzly bears, Ursus spp.; wolf, Canis lupus ssp.; wolverine. Gula l. luscus. At the time of writing, nearly ail species of land carnivores in Alaska have been examined as well as many other mammalian species less likely to be infected, including various rodents, shrews, and others.

Demography and population viability of polar bears in the Gulf of Boothia, Nunavut

We estimated demographic parameters and harvest risks for polar bears (Ursus maritimus) inhabiting the Gulf of Boothia, Nunavut, from 1976 to 2000. We computed survival and abundance from capture–recapture and recovery data (630 marks) using a Burnham joint live–dead model implemented in program MARK. Annual mean total survival (including harvest) was 0.889 ± 0.179 ( x ± 1 SE) for cubs, 0.883 ± 0.087 for subadults (ages 1–4), 0.919 ± 0.044 for adult females, and 0.917 ± 0.041 for adult males. Abundance in the last 3 yr of study was 1,592 ± 361 bears. Mean size of newborn litters was 1.648 ± 0.098 cubs. By age 7, 0.97 ± 0.30 of available females were producing litters. Harvest averaged 38.4 ± 4.2 bears/year in the last 5 yr of study; however, the 2002–2007 kill averaged 56.4 bears/yr. We used a harvested Population Viability Analysis (PVA) to examine impacts of increasing rates of harvest. We estimated the current population growth rate, λH, to be 1.025 ± 0.032. Although this suggests the population is growing, progressive environmental changes may require more frequent population inventory studies to maintain the same levels of harvest risk.

Selective Foraging For Anthropogenic Resources By Black Bears: Minivans In Yosemite National Park

Black bears (Ursus americanus) forage selectively in natural environments. To determine if bears also forage selectively for anthropogenic resources we analyzed data on vehicles broken into by bears from Yosemite National Park, California. We classified vehicles into 9 categories based on their make and model and collected data on use (2001–2007) and availability (2004–2005). From 2001 to 2007 bears broke into 908 vehicles at the following rates: minivan (26.0%), sport–utility vehicle (22.5%), small car (17.1%), sedan (13.7%), truck (11.9%), van (4.2%), sports car (1.7%), coupe (1.7%), and station wagon (1.4%). Only use of minivans (29%) during 2004–2005 was significantly higher than expected (7%). We discuss several competing hypotheses about why bears selected minivans.

EFFECTS OF IMPLEMENTING EPA'S ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION PROGRAM ON NATIONAL FOREST SYSTEM LANDS

In 1986, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) initiated an effort to comply more fully with the Endangered Species Act. This effort became their "Endangered Species Protection Program." The possibility of such a program was forecast in 1982 when Donald A. Spencer gave a presentation to the Tenth Vertebrate Pest Conference on "Vertebrate Pest Management and Changing Times." This paper focuses on current plans for implementing the EPA's Endangered Species Protection Program as it relates to the USDA Forest Service. It analyzes the potential effects this program will have on the agency, using the pocket gopher (Thomomys spp.), strychnine, and the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) as examples of an affected pest, pesticide, and predator.

Continuous-wave watt-level Nd:YLF/KGW Raman laser operating at near-IR, yellow and lime-green wavelengths

A Nd:YLF/KGW Raman laser has been investigated in this work. We have demonstrated CW output powers at six different wavelengths, 1147 nm (0.70 W), 1163 nm (0.95 W), 549 nm (0.65 W), 552 nm (1.90 W), 573 nm (0.60 W) and 581 nm (1.10 W), with higher peak powers achieved under quasi-CW operation. Raman conversion of the 1053 nm fundamental emission is reported for the first time, enabling two new wavelengths in crystalline Raman lasers, 549 nm and 552 nm. The weak thermal lensing associated with Nd:YLF has enabled to achieve good beam quality, M-2 <= 2.0, and stable operation in relatively long cavities. (C) 2012 Optical Society of America

Geomorfologia del giacimento di orso delle caverne nella grotta di Govjestica, Valle di Praca, Bosnia-Ercegovina

In 2011 the GSB/USB caving group of Bologna has discovered, in the southern fossil branches of Govjestica cave (Valle di Praça, Bosnia) a fossil deposit of vertebrates containing bones of Ursus spelaeus, Capra ibex, Cricetulus migratorius and Microtus. On the basis of the U/Th ages of the bones, teeth and carbonate flowstone covering the fossils (60 ka), datings carried out in the laboratories of U-Series at Bologna, and on the disposition of the bones, a past connection between Govjestica and the nearby Banja Stjena cave is hypothesised. The closure of this passage has occurred suddenly through a collapse that has forced the last cave bears awakened from their winter sleep to stay blocked in Govjestica, and die. The connecting passage has later been covered with calcite flowstones and is no longer visible. This hypothesis is sustained by the rather scarce number of skeletons of cave bears found in Govjestica (a dozen of skulls against the often large amounts of cave bears found in similar caves): Govjestica cave, and especially the Room of the Bones in its southern part, has been used by cave bears only for a couple of centuries before these parts became inaccessible. Furthermore, the entrance of Banja Stjena cave was probably located close to or at the level of the Praça river, that has excavated its thalweg for around 20 metres in the last 60 ka.

Recovery of large carnivores in Europe's modern human-dominated landscapes.

The conservation of large carnivores is a formidable challenge for biodiversity conservation. Using a data set on the past and current status of brown bears (Ursus arctos), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), gray wolves (Canis lupus), and wolverines (Gulo gulo) in European countries, we show that roughly one-third of mainland Europe hosts at least one large carnivore species, with stable or increasing abundance in most cases in 21st-century records. The reasons for this overall conservation success include protective legislation, supportive public opinion, and a variety of practices making coexistence between large carnivores and people possible. The European situation reveals that large carnivores and people can share the same landscape.