Effects of differential taxation on factor accumulation and growth

In this paper we try to analyze the role of fiscal policy in fostering a higher participation of the different production factors in the human capital production sector in the long-run. Introducing a tax on physical capital and differentiating both a tax on raw labor wage and a tax on skills or human capital we also attempt to present a way to influence inequality as measured by the skill premium, thus trying to relate the increase in human capital with the decrease in income inequality. We will do that in the context of a non-scale growth model.The model here is capable to alter the shares of private factors devoted to each of the two production sectors, final output and human capital, and affect inequality in a different way according to the different tax changes. The simulation results derived in the paper show how a human capital (skills) tax cut, which could be interpreted as a reduction in progressivity, ends up increasing both the shares of labor and physical capital devoted to the production of knowledge and decreasing inequality. Moreover, a raw labor wage tax decrease, which could also be interpreted as an increase in the progressivity of the system, increases the share of labor devoted to the production of final output and increases inequality. Finally, a physical capital tax decrease reduces the share of physical capital devoted to the production of knowledge and allows for a lower inequality value. Nevertheless, none of the various types of taxes ends up changing the share of human capital in the knowledge production, which will deserve our future attention

Tax reforms and inequality: theoretical and empirical implications

In this paper we examine the effect of tax policy on the relationship between inequality and growth in a two-sector non-scale model. With non-scale models, the longrun equilibrium growth rate is determined by technological parameters and it is independent of macroeconomic policy instruments. However, this fact does not imply that fiscal policy is unimportant for long-run economic performance. It indeed has important effects on the different levels of key economic variables such as per capita stock of capital and output. Hence, although the economy grows at the same rate across steady states, the bases for economic growth may be different.The model has three essential features. First, we explicitly model skill accumulation, second, we introduce government finance into the production function, and we introduce an income tax to mirror the fiscal events of the 1980¿s and 1990¿s in the US. The fact that the non-scale model is associated with higher order dynamics enables it to replicate the distinctly non-linear nature of inequality in the US with relative ease. The results derived in this paper attract attention to the fact that the non-scale growth model does not only fit the US data well for the long-run (Jones, 1995b) but also that it possesses unique abilities in explaining short term fluctuations of the economy. It is shown that during transition the response of the relative simulated wage to changes in the tax code is rather non-monotonic, quite in accordance to the US inequality pattern in the 1980¿s and early 1990¿s.More specifically, we have analyzed in detail the dynamics following the simulation of an isolated tax decrease and an isolated tax increase. So, after a tax decrease the skill premium follows a lower trajectory than the one it would follow without a tax decrease. Hence we are able to reduce inequality for several periods after the fiscal shock. On the contrary, following a tax increase, the evolution of the skill premium remains above the trajectory carried on by the skill premium under a situation with no tax increase. Consequently, a tax increase would imply a higher level of inequality in the economy

The Effect of Tax Revenue Budgeting Errors on Fiscal Balance : Evidence from Swiss cantons

This study is an empirical analysis of the impact of direct tax revenue budgeting errors on fiscal deficits. Using panel data from 26 Swiss cantons between 1980 and 2002, we estimate a single equation model on the fiscal balance, as well as a simultaneous equation model on revenue and expenditure. We use new data on budgeted and actual tax revenue to show that underestimating tax revenue significantly reduces fiscal deficits. Furthermore, we show that this effect is channeled through decreased expenditure. The effects of over and underestimation turn out to be symmetric.

Estimating the effects of fiscal policy under the budget constraint

I reconsider the short-term effects of fiscal policy when both government spending and taxes are allowed to respond to the level of public debt. I embed the long-term government budget constraint in a VAR, and apply this common trends model to US quarterly data. The results overturn some widely held beliefs on fiscal policy effects. The main finding is that expansionary fiscal policy has contractionary effects on output and inflation. Ricardian effects may dominate when fiscal expansions are expected to be adjusted by future tax rises or spending cuts. The evidence supports RBC models with distortionary taxation. We can discard some alternative interpretations that are based on monetary policy reactions or supply-side effects.

On the dynamic effects of fiscal policy

Dans le sillage de la récession mondiale de 2008-09, plusieurs questions ont été soulevées dans la littérature économique sur les effets à court et à long terme de la politique budgétaire sur l’activité économique par rapport à son signe, sa taille et sa durée. Ceux-ci ont des implications importantes pour mieux comprendre les canaux de transmission et l’efficacité des politiques budgétaires, avec la politique monétaire étant poursuivi, ainsi que pour leurs retombées économiques. Cette thèse fait partie de ce regain d’intérêt de la littérature d’examiner comment les changements dans la politique budgétaire affectent l’activité économique. Elle repose alors sur trois essais: les effets macroéconomiques des chocs de dépenses publiques et des recettes fiscales, les résultats macroéconomiques de l’interaction entre les politiques budgétaire et monétaire et le lien entre la politique budgétaire et la répartition des revenus. Le premier chapitre examine les effets des chocs de politique budgétaire (chocs de dépenses publiques et chocs de recettes fiscales) sur l’économie canadienne au cours de la période 1970-2010, en s’appuyant sur la méthode d’identification des restrictions de signe développée par Mountford et Uhlig [2009]. En réponse à la récession mondiale, les autorités fiscales dans les économies avancées, dont le Canada ont généralement mis en oeuvre une approche en deux phases pour la politique budgétaire. Tout d’abord, ils ont introduit des plans de relance sans précédent pour relancer leurs économies. Par exemple, les mesures de relance au Canada, introduites à travers le Plan d’action économique du Canada, ont été projetées à 3.2 pour cent du PIB dans le budget fédéral de 2009 tandis que l’ "American Recovery and Reinvestment Act"(ARRA) a été estimé à 7 pour cent du PIB. Par la suite, ils ont mis en place des plans d’ajustement en vue de réduire la dette publique et en assurer la soutenabilité à long terme. Dans ce contexte, évaluer les effets multiplicateurs de la politique budgétaire est important en vue d’informer sur l'efficacité de telles mesures dans la relance ou non de l'activité économique. Les résultats montrent que les multiplicateurs d'impôt varient entre 0.2 et 0.5, tandis que les multiplicateurs de dépenses varient entre 0.2 et 1.1. Les multiplicateurs des dépenses ont tendance à être plus grand que les multiplicateurs des recettes fiscales au cours des deux dernières décennies. Comme implications de politique économique, ces résultats tendent à suggérer que les ajustements budgétaires par le biais de grandes réductions de dépenses publiques pourraient être plus dommageable pour l'économie que des ajustements budgétaires par la hausse des impôts. Le deuxième chapitre, co-écrit avec Constant Lonkeng Ngouana, estime les effets multiplicateurs des dépenses publiques aux Etats-Unis en fonction du cycle de la politique monétaire. Les chocs de dépenses publiques sont identifiés comme étant des erreurs de prévision du taux de croissance des dépenses publiques à partir des données d'Enquêtes des prévisionnistes professionnels et des informations contenues dans le "Greenbook". L'état de la politique monétaire est déduite à partir de la déviation du taux des fonds fédéraux du taux cible de la Réserve Fédérale, en faisant recours à une fonction lisse de transition. L'application de la méthode des «projections locales» aux données trimestrielles américaines au cours de la période 1965-2012 suggère que les effets multiplicateurs des dépenses fédérales sont sensiblement plus élevées quand la politique monétaire est accommodante que lorsqu'elle ne l'est pas. Les résultats suggèrent aussi que les dépenses fédérales peuvent stimuler ou non la consommation privée, dépendamment du degré d’accommodation de la politique monétaire. Ce dernier résultat réconcilie ainsi, sur la base d’un cadre unifié des résultats autrement contradictoires à première vue dans la littérature. Ces résultats ont d'importantes implications de politique économique. Ils suggèrent globalement que la politique budgétaire est plus efficace lorsqu'on en a le plus besoin (par exemple, lorsque le taux de chômage est élevé), si elle est soutenue par la politique monétaire. Ils ont également des implications pour la normalisation des conditions monétaires dans les pays avancés: la sortie des politiques monétaires non-conventionnelles conduirait à des multiplicateurs de dépenses fédérales beaucoup plus faibles qu'autrement, même si le niveau de chômage restait élevé. Ceci renforce la nécessité d'une calibration prudente du calendrier de sortie des politiques monétaires non-conventionnelles. Le troisième chapitre examine l'impact des mesures d'expansion et de contraction budgétaire sur la distribution des revenus dans un panel de 18 pays d'Amérique latine au cours de la période 1990-2010, avec un accent sur les deniers 40 pour cent. Il explore alors comment ces mesures fiscales ainsi que leur composition affectent la croissance des revenus des dernier 40 pour cent, la croissance de leur part de revenu ainsi que la croissance économique. Les mesures d'expansion et de contraction budgétaire sont identifiées par des périodes au cours desquels il existe une variation significative du déficit primaire corrigé des variations conjoncturelles en pourcentage du PIB. Les résultats montrent qu'en moyenne l'expansion budgétaire par la hausse des dépenses publiques est plus favorable à la croissance des revenus des moins bien-nantis que celle par la baisse des impôts. Ce résultat est principalement soutenu par la hausse des dépenses gouvernementales de consommation courante, les transferts et subventions. En outre ces mesures d’expansion budgétaire sont favorables à la réduction des inégalités car elles permettent d'améliorer la part des revenus des moins bien-nantis tout en réduisant la part des revenus des mieux-nantis de la distribution des revenus. En outre ces mesures d’expansion budgétaire sont favorables à la réduction des inégalités car elles permettent d'améliorer la part des revenus des moins bien-nantis tout en réduisant la part des revenus des mieux-nantis de la distribution des revenus. Cependant, l'expansion budgétaire pourrait soit n'avoir aucun effet sur la croissance économique ou entraver cette dernière à travers la hausse des dépenses en capital. Les résultats relatifs à la contraction budgétaire sont quelque peu mitigés. Parfois, les mesures de contraction budgétaire sont associées à une baisse de la croissance des revenus des moins bien nantis et à une hausse des inégalités, parfois l'impact de ces mesures est non significatif. Par ailleurs, aucune des mesures n’affecte de manière significative la croissance du PIB. Comme implications de politique économique, les pays avec une certaine marge de manœuvre budgétaire pourraient entamer ou continuer à mettre en œuvre des programmes de "filets de sauvetage"--par exemple les programmes de transfert monétaire conditionnel--permettant aux segments vulnérables de la population de faire face à des chocs négatifs et aussi d'améliorer leur conditions de vie. Avec un potentiel de stimuler l'emploi peu qualifié, une relance budgétaire sage par les dépenses publique courantes pourrait également jouer un rôle important pour la réduction des inégalités. Aussi, pour éviter que les dépenses en capital freinent la croissance économique, les projets d'investissements publics efficients devraient être prioritaires dans le processus d'élaboration des politiques. Ce qui passe par la mise en œuvre des projets d'investissement avec une productivité plus élevée capable de générer la croissance économique nécessaire pour réduire les inégalités.

The efficiency of direct payments versus tax reductions under uncertainty

This paper analyzes the optimal behavior of farmers in the presence of direct payments and uncertainty. In an empirical analysis for Switzerland, it confirms previously obtained theoretical results and determines the magnitude of the theoretical predicted effects. The results show that direct payments increase agricultural production between 3.7% to 4.8%. Alternatively to direct payments, the production effect of tax reductions is evaluated in order to determine its magnitude. The empirical analysis corroborates the theoretical results of the literature and demonstrates that tax reductions are also distorting, but to a substantially lesser degree if losses are not offset. However, tax reductions, independently whether losses are offset or not, lead to higher government spending than pure direct payments

The effects of the informal sector on construction

Most construction sectors around the world have a high percentage of output being produced informally. In developing countries informal construction activities can account for as much as 80% of employment (Farrell 2004). In general, the informal sector equates to a significant percentage of country’s GDP — 40% in developing countries and 18% in the OECD high-income countries. The informal sector in construction is not well understood and difficult to measure and is thriving both in the developed and developing world. Construction industries are made up of a large number of small firms and a small number of large firms. Many small firms are less likely to be able (or to want to) afford the bureaucratic demands of a nation’s fiscal and legal system. This evasion means a reduction in tax income for the government, and also leads to inaccurate estimates of the true value of construction output. Some national statistical agencies factor in an estimate of the size of the informal sector, but without effective measurement, there is no guarantee that the estimate is a fair one. The message from the paper is that the informal sector in construction is likely to grow. We need to understand the sector and recognise its impact on construction.

Effects of beverage alcohol taxes and prices on drinking: a meta-analysis of 1003 estimates from 112 studies

Aims: We conducted a systematic review of studies examining relationships between measures of beverage alcohol tax or price levels and alcohol sales or self-reported drinking. A total of 112 studies of alcohol tax or price effects were found, containing 1003 estimates of the tax/price–consumption relationship. Design: Studies included analyses of alternative outcome measures, varying subgroups of the population, several statistical models, and using different units of analysis. Multiple estimates were coded from each study, along with numerous study characteristics. Using reported estimates, standard errors, t-ratios, sample sizes and other statistics, we calculated the partial correlation for the relationship between alcohol price or tax and sales or drinking measures for each major model or subgroup reported within each study. Random-effects models were used to combine studies for inverse variance weighted overall estimates of the magnitude and significance of the relationship between alcohol tax/price and drinking. Findings: Simple means of reported elasticities are -0.46 for beer, -0.69 for wine and -0.80 for spirits. Meta-analytical results document the highly significant relationships (P < 0.001) between alcohol tax or price measures and indices of sales or consumption of alcohol (aggregate-level r = -0.17 for beer, -0.30 for wine, -0.29 for spirits and -0.44 for total alcohol). Price/tax also affects heavy drinking significantly (mean reported elasticity = -0.28, individual-level r = -0.01, P < 0.01), but the magnitude of effect is smaller than effects on overall drinking. Conclusions: A large literature establishes that beverage alcohol prices and taxes are related inversely to drinking. Effects are large compared to other prevention policies and programs. Public policies that raise prices of alcohol are an effective means to reduce drinking.

Asymmetric oligopoly and foreign direct investment: implications for host-country tax-setting

We present a duopoly model with heterogeneous firms that vary in cost-efficiency, each of which can choose to serve a foreign market by either exporting or local production. We do so to analyse the effects of a host-country corporate profit tax on both the scale and composition of FDI, and find that: strategic interaction between oligopolistic firms provides for a pattern of FDI that favours cost-inefficiency to the detriment of host-country welfare; and the host-country tax rate can be optimally used to avoid such patterns of FDI and instead promote direct investment by a relatively cost-efficient firm.

Overall and income specific effect on prevalence of overweight and obesity of 20% sugar sweetened drink tax in UK: econometric and comparative risk assessment modelling study

Objective To model the overall and income specific effect of a 20% tax on sugar sweetened drinks on the prevalence of overweight and obesity in the UK. Design Econometric and comparative risk assessment modelling study. Setting United Kingdom. Population Adults aged 16 and over. Intervention A 20% tax on sugar sweetened drinks. Main outcome measures The primary outcomes were the overall and income specific changes in the number and percentage of overweight (body mass index ≥25) and obese (≥30) adults in the UK following the implementation of the tax. Secondary outcomes were the effect by age group (16-29, 30-49, and ≥50 years) and by UK constituent country. The revenue generated from the tax and the income specific changes in weekly expenditure on drinks were also estimated. Results A 20% tax on sugar sweetened drinks was estimated to reduce the number of obese adults in the UK by 1.3% (95% credible interval 0.8% to 1.7%) or 180 000 (110 000 to 247 000) people and the number who are overweight by 0.9% (0.6% to 1.1%) or 285 000 (201 000 to 364 000) people. The predicted reductions in prevalence of obesity for income thirds 1 (lowest income), 2, and 3 (highest income) were 1.3% (0.3% to 2.0%), 0.9% (0.1% to 1.6%), and 2.1% (1.3% to 2.9%). The effect on obesity declined with age. Predicted annual revenue was £276m (£272m to £279m), with estimated increases in total expenditure on drinks for income thirds 1, 2, and 3 of 2.1% (1.4% to 3.0%), 1.7% (1.2% to 2.2%), and 0.8% (0.4% to 1.2%). Conclusions A 20% tax on sugar sweetened drinks would lead to a reduction in the prevalence of obesity in the UK of 1.3% (around 180 000 people). The greatest effects may occur in young people, with no significant differences between income groups. Both effects warrant further exploration. Taxation of sugar sweetened drinks is a promising population measure to target population obesity, particularly among younger adults.

Full effects of land use change in the representative concentration pathways

Future land use change (LUC) is an important component of the IPCC representative concentration pathways (RCPs), but in these scenarios' radiative forcing targets the climate impact of LUC only includes greenhouse gases. However, climate effects due to physical changes of the land surface can be as large. Here we show the critical importance of including non-carbon impacts of LUC when considering the RCPs. Using an ensemble of climate model simulations with and without LUC, we show that the net climate effect is very different from the carbon-only effect. Despite opposite signs of LUC, all the RCPs assessed here have a small net warming from LUC because of varying biogeophysical effects, and in RCP4.5 the warming is outside of the expected variability. The afforestation in RCP4.5 decreases surface albedo, making the net global temperature anomaly over land around five times larger than RCPs 2.6 and 8.5, for around twice the amount of LUC. Consequent changes to circulation in RCP4.5 in turn reduce Arctic sea ice cover. The small net positive temperature effect from LUC could make RCP4.5's universal carbon tax, which incentivizes retaining and growing forest, counter productive with respect to climate. However, there are spatial differences in the balance of impacts, and potential climate gains would need to be assessed against other environmental aims.

Climatic impacts of land-use change due to crop yield increases and a universal carbon tax from a scenario model*

Future land cover will have a significant impact on climate and is strongly influenced by the extent of agricultural land use. Differing assumptions of crop yield increase and carbon pricing mitigation strategies affect projected expansion of agricultural land in future scenarios. In the representative concentration pathway 4.5 (RCP4.5) from phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5), the carbon effects of these land cover changes are included, although the biogeophysical effects are not. The afforestation in RCP4.5 has important biogeophysical impacts on climate, in addition to the land carbon changes, which are directly related to the assumption of crop yield increase and the universal carbon tax. To investigate the biogeophysical climatic impact of combinations of agricultural crop yield increases and carbon pricing mitigation, five scenarios of land-use change based on RCP4.5 are used as inputs to an earth system model [Hadley Centre Global Environment Model, version 2-Earth System (HadGEM2-ES)]. In the scenario with the greatest increase in agricultural land (as a result of no increase in crop yield and no climate mitigation) there is a significant -0.49 K worldwide cooling by 2100 compared to a control scenario with no land-use change. Regional cooling is up to -2.2 K annually in northeastern Asia. Including carbon feedbacks from the land-use change gives a small global cooling of -0.067 K. This work shows that there are significant impacts from biogeophysical land-use changes caused by assumptions of crop yield and carbon mitigation, which mean that land carbon is not the whole story. It also elucidates the potential conflict between cooling from biogeophysical climate effects of land-use change and wider environmental aims.

Do investors care about corporate tax?

This paper conducts a comprehensive examination of the link between corporation tax payment and financial performance in the UK. We find no discernible link between tax rates and stock returns for the UK, no matter how tax payment is measured. This is true throughout the sample period and for both customer-facing and non-customer-facing companies. However, allowing for industry norms and a host of firm characteristics, companies with lower effective tax rates have significantly higher levels of stock market risk. Firms that are reported in the newspapers in a negative way in relation to their level of corporation tax payment experience small negative stock returns, which are partially reversed within a month. However, the initial negative effects and subsequent rebound are both more pronounced for smaller companies. News announcements of the potential involvement of a firm in a corporate inversion (expatriation) result in steeper and much longer-lasting falls in share prices, whereas news stories of a more general nature relating to a firm's tax avoidance or tax payments have little noticeable effect.

The effects of taxing truck distance on CO2 emissions from transports in retailing

To finance transportation infrastructure and to address social and environmental negative externalities of road transports, several countries have recently introduced or consider a distance based tax on trucks. In the competitive retail market such tax can be expected to lower the demand and thereby reduce CO2 emissions of road transports. However, as we show in this paper, such tax might also slow down the transition towards e-tailing. Considering that previous research indicates that a consumer switching from brick-and-mortar shopping to e-tailing reduces her CO2 emissions substantially, the direction and magnitude of the environmental net effect of the tax is unclear. In this paper, we assess the net effect in a Swedish regional retail market where the tax not yet is in place. We predict the net effect on CO2 emissions to be positive, but off-set by about 50% because of a slower transition to e-tailing.

Welfare and growth effects of alternative fiscal rules for infrastructure investment in Brazil

This article studies the interplay between fiscal rules, public investment and growth in Brazil. It is investigated if it would make sense to raise public investment and, if so, under which fiscal rule it is best to do it — whether through tax financing, debt financing, or a reduction of public consumption. We construct and simulate a competitive general equilibrium model, calibrated to Brazilian economy, in which public capital is a component of the production function and public consumption directly affects individuals’ well-being. After assessing the impacts of alternative fiscal rules, the paper concludes that the most desirable financing scheme is the reduction of public consumption, which dominates the others in terms of output and welfare gains. The model replicates the observed growth slowdown of the Brazilian economy when we increase taxes and reduce public capital formation to the levels observed after 1980 and shows that the growth impact of the expansion of tax collection in Brazil was much larger than that of public investment compression.