"Coaching soccer is a man’s job!" – The influence of gender stereotypes on structures for recruiting female coaches in soccer clubs

Statistics published by the German Football Association indicate that women are significantly under-represented amongst soccer coaches, especially in the amateur leagues. In this paper we analyse how gender stereotypes influence the structural conditions surrounding the recruitment of coaches to soccer clubs that contribute to the exclusion of women from coaching positions. A qualitative study of five selected soccer clubs which are members of a German regional soccer association reveals that informal and personal decision-making practices still play a fundamental role in the recruitment of coaches. These practices undermine formal guidelines and give disproportionate weight to stereotyped preferences in the recruitment of soccer coaches. In this context, decision-makers' (functionaries') professed support of women largely serves a symbolic purpose and creates an illusion of equality concerning decisions that have already been taken at an informal level.

An exploratory study about the perception and justification of violence in Mixed Martial Arts and kickboxing athletes

THE INFLUENCE of combat sport practice on behaviour, attitude, personality and other factors was, and still remains, a research topic of great interest as well as conflicting points of view. Findings are as yet inconclusive since a direct or causal effect is difficult to establish and other factors external to the individual, such as the instructor’s coaching style, also need to be taken into consideration. Furthermore, the wide range of disciplines pertaining to the category combat sports differ from each other on a number of characteristics, such as the extent of physical contact or competition rules, and in fact, attempts have been made to distinguish between various sub-types (e.g. Trulson, 1986). A common distinction made is that between the traditional martial arts, which place emphasis on the art’s philosophy, its traditions and hierarchy (e.g. traditional karate, aikido) and the modern (or Western) combat sports (e.g. boxing, Mixed Martial Arts). An ongoing debate exists about the potential positive and/or negative influence of combat sport practice in comparison to other sport disciplines that do not include this element of fighting and direct aggression. On the one hand, combat sports have been presented by some researchers and sport practitioners as a means of promoting positive social and individual behavior, such as in Theeboom, De Knop and Wylleman’s (2008) evaluation of a martial arts Programme for socially disadvantaged youths in Belgium. Results revealed a positive effect of this project; however, it also highlighted the crucial role played by the instructors or leaders of such programmes. In another intervention using martial arts, Trulson (1986) reported a positive effect of a six month traditional martial art (Korean Tae Kwon Do) intervention with male juvenile delinquents including a reduction in aggressiveness and anxiety, thus confirming the positive influence of such an activity. Nevertheless, this effect was not observed in the other group participating in a modern Adaptation of this martial art led by the same instructor, where the philosophical aspect of this discipline was not emphasised. Moreover, an opposite effect was ascertained in this case where an increased tendency towards delinquency was reported. These results support the distinction between the various types of combat sports together with the way this sport is presented and taught by the instructor.

What does professionalization mean? Developing a conceptual framework of professionalization in sports federations

Professionalization seems to be an appropriate strategy for sports organizations to meet organizational pressure due to challenges of a more complex and dynamic changing environment (e.g. Shilbury & Ferkins, 2011). However, despite the increasing number of studies attempting to disclose professionalization in sports organizations, it still remains unclear, what the term professionalization actually mean, and which aspects a suitable concept of professionalization for studying the phenomena should consist in (Dowling et al., 2014). To bridge this gap, we firstly display scholars’ perspective of professionalization in sports organizations in order to explore the common ground as well as divergences in previous approaches. We will then consider practical views of Swiss experts to gain valuable insight, as pointed out by Slack (2014), into current thinking and acting towards professionalization in sports federations in Switzerland. In semi-structured interviews, we asked six experts, who accompany the professionalization processes of Swiss national sports federations, about their subjective understanding of professionalization, and its characteristics. The interviews were analyzed applying hermeneutic approach to systematically reconstruct the observed characteristics of professionalization resulting in three main topics: (1) changed management philosophy, (2) specialization and functional differentiation, and (3) management tools. Based on the literature review as well as insights from the Swiss experts, we will provide a synthesis of crucial aspects for developing a conceptual framework of professionalization that can be useful for further studies. References Dowling, M., Edwards, J., & Washington, M. (2014). Understanding the concept of professionalisation in sport management research. Sport Management Review, 17, 520-529. Shilbury, D., & Ferkins, L. (2011). Professionalisation, sport governance and strategic capability. Managing Leisure, 16, 108-127. Slack, T. (2014). The social and commercial impact of sport, the role of sport management. European Sport Management Quarterly, 14, 454–463.

Gaining Insight into Actual and Preferred Sources of Coaching Knowledge

Previous research has suggested that current formal coach education programs do not fully meet the learning needs of coaches. The purpose of the present study was to examine actual and preferred sources of coaching knowledge for developmental-level coaches. Structured quantitative interviews were conducted with coaches (N = 44) from a variety of sports. Learning by doing, interaction with coaching peers, and formal coach education were the top actual sources of coaching knowledge. Discrepancies were found between actual and preferred usage of learning by doing, formal coach education, and mentoring. Coaches indicated they would prefer more guided learning and less self-directed learning by doing. Further, differences in preferred sources were identified between coaches wishing to move to an elite level versus coaches wishing to stay at a developmental level. Findings highlight the importance of both experiential and formally guided sources of coaching knowledge and the context-specific nature of coach learning.

The Relationship Between Coaching Behaviours and Sport Anxiety in Athletes

Previous research has identified the relationship between athlete sport anxiety and various sport outcomes (e.g., performance and dropout). For the majority of athletes involved in sport, the coach is an influential element of the competitive experience. Two hundred and twenty-eight athletes from 15 sports, completed the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS) and the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport (CBS-S). The predictive ability of athletes' perceived frequency of seven coaching behaviours (physical training, mental preparation, goal setting, technical skills, competition strategies, personal rapport and negative personal rapport) on four forms of sport anxiety (total anxiety, somatic anxiety, concentration disruption and worry) was examined. Results indicate that negative personal rapport was a significant predictor of all measured forms of sport anxiety while competition strategies was a significant predictor for total anxiety, concentration disruption, and worry. Other behaviours were not significant. The findings suggest that negative rapport between coach and athlete is an important contributor to athlete anxiety. In addition, behaviours that the coach demonstrates relative to competition can be influential in reducing athlete anxiety.

Coach Behaviors and Athlete Satisfaction in Team and Individual Sports

The coach can have a profound impact on athlete satisfaction, regardless of the level of sport involvement. Previous research has identified differences between coaching behavior preferences in team and individual sport athletes. The present study examined the moderating effect that an athlete's sport type (i.e., individual or team) may have on the relationships among seven coaching behaviors (mental preparation, technical skills, goal setting, physical training, competition strategies, personal rapport, and negative personal rapport) for predicting coaching satisfaction. Moderated multiple regression analyses indicated that each of the seven coaching behaviors were significant main effect predictors of coaching satisfaction. However, sport type (i.e., team or individual sports) was found to moderate six of the seven relationships: mental preparation, technical skills, goal setting, competition strategies, personal rapport, and negative personal rapport in predicting satisfaction with the coach. These findings indicate that high coaching satisfaction for athletes in team sports is influenced to a greater extent by the demonstration of these behaviors than it is for individual sport athletes.

Sports and amusements for the juvenile philosopher : a present for the young : part first.

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Self-determination theory: A case study of evidence-based coaching

The coach is central to the development of expertise in sport (Bloom, 1985) and is subsequently key to facilitating adaptive forms of motivation to enhance the quality of sport performance (Mallett & Hanrahan, 2004). In designing optimal training environments that are sensitive to the underlying motives of athletes, the coach requires an in-depth understanding of motivation. This paper reports on the application of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) to coaching elite athletes. Specifically, the application of SDT to designing an autonomy-supportive motivational climate is outlined, which was used in preparing Australia's two men's relay teams for the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens.

High performance sport coaching: Institutes of sport as sites for learning

There has been a marked increase in the number of government-funded, high performance institutes and academies of sport within Australia. Given that these organisations employ significant numbers of full-time performance sport coaches, they may be accurately characterised as workplaces. Performance sport coaches have underscored the importance of experience in developing their coaching skill. However, despite wide acceptance of the view that learning occurs everywhere but to different extents and with different efficiency, and the acknowledgement of current national coach education programs as insufficient, no sport coaching research has focused specifically on sport workplaces as sites for learning. This paper will review the current nature of coach development with a view to examining the interaction between what the workplace (institute/academy) affords the individual and the personal agency of the individual (high performance sports coaches).

The Relationship Between Coaching Behaviours and Sport Anxiety in Athletes

Previous research has identified the relationship between athlete sport anxiety and various sport outcomes (e.g., performance and dropout). For the majority of athletes involved in sport, the coach is an influential element of the competitive experience. Two hundred and twenty-eight athletes from 15 sports, completed the Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS) and the Coaching Behavior Scale for Sport (CBS-S). The predictive ability of athletes' perceived frequency of seven coaching behaviours (physical training, mental preparation, goal setting, technical skills, competition strategies, personal rapport and negative personal rapport) on four forms of sport anxiety (total anxiety, somatic anxiety, concentration disruption and worry) was examined. Results indicate that negative personal rapport was a significant predictor of all measured forms of sport anxiety while competition strategies was a significant predictor for total anxiety, concentration disruption, and worry. Other behaviours were not significant. The findings suggest that negative rapport between coach and athlete is an important contributor to athlete anxiety. In addition, behaviours that the coach demonstrates relative to competition can be influential in reducing athlete anxiety.

Coach Behaviors and Athlete Satisfaction in Team and Individual Sports

The coach can have a profound impact on athlete satisfaction, regardless of the level of sport involvement. Previous research has identified differences between coaching behavior preferences in team and individual sport athletes. The present study examined the moderating effect that an athlete's sport type (i.e., individual or team) may have on the relationships among seven coaching behaviors (mental preparation, technical skills, goal setting, physical training, competition strategies, personal rapport, and negative personal rapport) for predicting coaching satisfaction. Moderated multiple regression analyses indicated that each of the seven coaching behaviors were significant main effect predictors of coaching satisfaction. However, sport type (i.e., team or individual sports) was found to moderate six of the seven relationships: mental preparation, technical skills, goal setting, competition strategies, personal rapport, and negative personal rapport in predicting satisfaction with the coach. These findings indicate that high coaching satisfaction for athletes in team sports is influenced to a greater extent by the demonstration of these behaviors than it is for individual sport athletes.

COACHES, CLIMATES, “FIELD” GOALS, AND EFFICACY: A “DE-CONSTRUCTION” OF THE MASTERY-APPROACH TO COACHING AND EXAMINATION OF RELATIONSHIPS TO PSYCHOSOCIAL OUTCOMES IN A YOUTH FOOTBALL PLAYER DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM.

In support of the achievement goal theory (AGT), empirical research has demonstrated psychosocial benefits of the mastery-oriented learning climate. In this study, we examined the effects of perceived coaching behaviors on various indicators of psychosocial well-being (competitive anxiety, self-esteem, perceived competence, enjoyment, and future intentions for participation), as mediated by perceptions of the coach-initiated motivational climate, achievement goal orientations and perceptions of sport-specific skills efficacy. Using a pre-post test design, 1,464 boys, ages 10-15 (M = 12.84 years, SD = 1.44), who participated in a series of 12 football skills clinics were surveyed from various locations across the United States. Using structural equation modeling (SEM) path analysis and hierarchical regression analysis, the cumulative direct and indirect effects of the perceived coaching behaviors on the psychosocial variables at post-test were parsed out to determine what types of coaching behaviors are more conducive to the positive psychosocial development of youth athletes. The study demonstrated that how coaching behaviors are perceived impacts the athletes’ perceptions of the motivational climate and achievement goal orientations, as well as self-efficacy beliefs. These effects in turn affect the athletes’ self-esteem, general competence, sport-specific competence, competitive anxiety, enjoyment, and intentions to remain involved in the sport. The findings also clarify how young boys internalize and interpret coaches’ messages through modification of achievement goal orientations and sport-specific efficacy beliefs.