光系统Ⅱ核心天线复合物CP43和CP47的分离纯化及其光谱学特性的研究

应用改进DEAE-Toyopearl 650S阴离子交换柱层析从高等植物菠菜(Spinacia oleracea)中分离纯化了核心天线复合物CP43和CP47。并对它们的纯度和完整性色素种类和含量，以及色素分子的结合状态进行了研究并对色素分子间的能量传递机制进行了讨论。结果如下： 1、HPLC检测结果表明：纯化的CP43和CP47均只含Chla和β-Car两种色素分子，并且，平均每分子CP43多肽含19-20分子Chla和4-5分子β-Car;而平均每分CP47则含20-21分子Chla和3-4分子β-Car。 2、以436nm和480nm激发光激发样品得到的CP43和CP47的低温荧光发射光谱的最大荧光发射峰分别位于683nm和693nm。进一步发现，CP43和CP47，在相同条件下分别以436nm和480nm激发光激发样品得到的低温荧光发射光谱经归一化后几乎完全重叠，而且400-500nm波长范围内的激发光扫描得到的三维低温荧光发射光谱沿激发轴具有较好的对应关系，表明纯化的CP43和CP47都具有较高的完整性。 3、纯化的CP43和CP47的吸收光谱的红区最大吸收峰分别位于671nm和674nm。该光区的导数光谱均分辨出偏蓝区和偏红区两个子峰，CP43的这两个子峰分别位于669nm和682nm;而CP47的两个子峰则分别位于669nm和680nm。进一步用包含这两个子峰的高斯解析参数对红区最大吸收峰进行拟合，结果证明，拟合的曲线与实测曲线几乎完全吻合，这表明，CP43和CP47均至少包含两种不同状态的Chla分子。 3．1应用不同的变性温度处理CP43，发现随变性温度的不断提高，其红区最大吸收峰的峰值逐渐减小，四阶导数光谱分辨出的两个子峰同时减小，但差光谱显示：随处理温度的不断提高，这两个组分峰值的变化并不同步进行，较低温度范围内(55℃以下)682nm吸收峰下降明显，而较高温度范围内(55℃以上)，669nm吸收峰下降明显。 同时，随处理温度不断提高CP43脱辅基蛋白的结构也在不断发生变化，其变化过程明显表现出两个跃变阶段。这两个跃变阶段分别出现在40～50℃范围内和55～60℃范围内，恰与吸收光谱两个组分峰变化的转变过程相一致。这证明，CP43中分别位于669nm和682nm的不同的色谱组分即代表两种不同结合态的Chla分子，分别简称为“CP43-669”和“CP43-682”。它们在色素蛋白复合物中所处的环境不同，因而对蛋白质结构的依赖性不同，前者更高地依赖于蛋白复合物的整体构象，而后者则主要依赖于蛋白质的二级结构。 3.2 经不同的变性温度处理的CP47，其红区最大吸收峰的峰位逐渐蓝移，而吸收峰值无明显的变化，只有当处理温度提高到65℃以后，蓝移后的吸收峰值(669nm)才开始明显减小;四阶导数光谱表现为680nm吸收峰的信号逐渐下降669nm的吸收信号逐渐明显;处理减对照差光谱只观察到680nm吸收值的逐渐减少，而几乎观察不到669nm吸收值的变化。同时，随变性温度的不断提高，CP47的脱辅基蛋白的结构也发生相应的变化与CP43不同，蛋白结构变化最大的温度范围为60℃～65℃之间，但同CP47的峰位蓝移、导数光谱中680nm信号的减小，以及差光谱中680nm吸收值的减小相一致。由此认为，同CP43一样，CP47的吸收光谱中分辨出的分别位于669nm和680nm处的两个不同光谱组分亦分别代表两种不同结合状态的Chla分子，分别简称为“CP47-669”和“CP47-680”，与CP43中的相应组分对应，它们处于不同的蛋白环境中，从而对蛋白质结构变化的依赖性不同。 3.3 CP43和CP47的CD光谱表现出明显的正负双峰，表明色素分子间存在较强的激子相互作用。随变性温度的不断提高，正负CD双峰的信号逐渐减弱，变化过程与脱辅基蛋白结构的变化以及CP43-682的变化相一致，表明色素分子间的激子相互作用更高依赖于CP43-682和CP47-680。并认为CP43-682和CP47-680可能以二聚体或多聚体的形式存在，并且二聚体或多聚体的形成依赖于蛋白天然构象。而CP43-669和CP47-669则以单体的形式位于蛋白结构中相对伸展的区域。并提出：在CP43-682以CP47-680分子之间，激发能主要以激子偶合机制进行而在CP43-669，CP47-669分子间及CP43-669至CP43-682间，CP47-669至CP47-680之间激发能则主要以Foster机制进行。 4、以488nm激发光得到的CP43和CP47的共振拉曼光谱都具有全反式构型类胡萝卜素分子的四个典型特征峰由此认为CP43和CP47中的β-Car分子亦具有全反式构型;与溶于丙酮抽体物中的β-Car分子相比较，CP43和CP47中的β-Car分子的共振拉曼光谱中具有较强的960cm~(-1)的拉曼峰，表明，CP43和CP47中的β-Car分子具有扭曲的构象。 应用经归一化后的吸收光谱与荧光激发光谱相比较的办法发现CP43和CP47中存在β-Car分子和Chla分子间的能量传递其能量传递效率分别为29.8～29.9%和52.3～56.9%。这表明，在正常条件下，CP47中β-Car分子和Chla分子间的能量传递效率远大于CP43。此外，当选用蛋白结构变化最明显的热变性温度处理样品后，发现，不论CP43还是CP47中β-Car与Chla分子间的能量传递效率大大降低，表明，这两种色素分子间的能量传递严格依赖于蛋白复合物的天然构象，并认为，正常条件下，CP43和CP47内β-Car与Chla分子间的空间距离较近，可能不大于10A，CP43和CP47相比较，CP47内这两种色素分子间的距离更近。并进一步提出，在CP43和CP47中，β-Car到Chla分子间的能量传递最大可能以Dexter的电子交换机制进行。

水稻菠菜紫黄质脱环氧化酶基因的克隆遗传转化及其特性的研究

自发现叶黄素循环具有热耗散的作用后它被引起广泛的关注目前普遍认为叶黄素循环的色素定位于天线色素蛋白复合体上在跨膜质子梯度pH形成后玉米黄质Z和环氧玉米黄质A能够从叶绿素中吸收过多的激发能并以热能的形式耗散到体外从而保护光合器官免受强光的破坏紫黄质脱环氧化酶VDE是叶黄素循环的关键酶在较低的pH条件下它能在数分钟内将紫黄质V转变为Z和A本论文从水稻和菠菜中克隆了编码VDE酶的基因并通过转基因植物进一步研究了叶黄素循环在热耗散方面的作用主要获得了以下结果 首次从两个水稻亚种籼稻和粳稻中克隆了Rvde基因分别命名为iRvde和jRvde的全长cDNA序列分别长1647bp和1887bp两者开放阅读框的同源性为98%与其它已知vde基因的同源性在60以上推导两者均编码446个氨基酸其中转运肽序列长98个氨基酸两者成熟蛋白的氨基酸序列完全相同与已知VDE成熟蛋白的同源性在75%以上其中与小麦的同源性最高达87.4 通过PCR扩增获得了Rvde基因的核基因组DNA序列在它们的编码区中含有4个内含子其长度在jRvde中分别为105bp327bp81bp和69bp而iRvde基因的第2个内含子长425bp与jRvde的第2个内含子差别较大内含子的AT含量为6063%其两端为典型的GT/AG结构 构建了Rvde基因的原核表达载体pET-Rvde在0.4mmol/L IPTG的诱导下该基因能在大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)中大量表达SDS-PAGE和Western杂交表明表达蛋白的分子量约为 43 kDa随着IPTG诱导时间的延长蛋白量逐渐增加诱导4h后它占大肠杆菌总蛋白的25左右吸收光谱差值A502-540随反应的进行逐渐增大反应体系总色素的HPLC分析表明V逐渐降低而Z刚好相反说明表达的蛋白具有与活体VDE酶相同的功能能在体外将V转变为A和Z 从菠菜中克隆了Svde基因并构建了该基因的反义抑制植物表达载体pCB-antiSvde用根癌农杆菌介导法转化烟草获得了大量的转基因植株再生的愈伤组织经GUS染色后呈蓝色PCR扩增潮霉素抗性基因hpt和Svde基因结果显示在转基因植株T0和T1代中都分别扩增出1.0 kb和1.4 kb的目的片段而在未转化的对照植株中没有扩增转基因植株的T0代种子在潮霉素培养基上的萌发数与未萌发数的比值为3:1符合单基因的孟德尔分离规律从T1代转基因植株中筛选出抑制程度较强的一个株系A29Southern杂交结果表明外源Svde基因已整合到烟草的基因组中并且只有一个插入位点通过冻融法从该植株的类囊体中提取VDE酶其酶活性为3.2是对照植株的45.7表明VDE酶受到了抑制荧光动力学及HPLC测定结果显示强光处理后在转基因植株中Z和A的形成较少非光化学淬灭NPQ值较对照低Fv/Fm的下降较对照快表明转基因植株的热耗散能力下降进而说明叶黄素循环具有热耗散的功能 同时还建立了根癌农杆菌介导的水稻遗传转化体系并初步作了转化Svde基因的试验另外还建立了一种适合于筛选转基因植株的DNA微量提取法此方法操作快捷方便一个人在一天内能制备50多个样品100mg的植物鲜样平均可获得40µg的DNA提取的DNA可直接用于PCR反应酶切分析及Southern分析

高温和衰老对光合膜结构与功能影响的研究

本部分研究以菠菜和水稻为材料，比较系统的研究了高温对类囊体膜、PSII颗粒、PSII外周捕光天线LHCII、PSII核心复合物和PSII反应中心等不同层次膜蛋白结构与功能的影响，以探讨高温对光合膜蛋白的伤害机理。其主要结果如下： 1．类囊体膜结构与功能的完整性对于维持PSII的结构与功能在高温胁迫下的稳定性具有重要作用。当类囊体膜的完整性受到破坏，当与PSI有关的一系列保护机制失去作用时，PSII对高温胁迫的敏感性会大大加强。 2．虽然PSI的功能在高温下保持相对稳定，但PSI的结构在高温胁迫下并不稳定。本文的研究发现LHCI对高温非常敏感，在中度高温胁迫下就开始降解，但PSI的核心在高温下比较稳定，所以PSI介导的电子传递活性仍然维持在较高水平。 3．高温胁迫会对PSII的结构和功能产生多重破坏。这个过程首先应该是放氧复合体的失活：其次是反应中心的可逆失活;接下来可能是核心天线CP43和CP47的失活导致捕光天线同反应中心的能量传递受阻;再下来是QA到QR电子传递的受阻、反应中心的不可逆失活、捕光效率下降等过程;最后是大范围色素蛋白的变性和失活，PSII的结构和功能遭到彻底破坏。 4．高湿胁迫下Fo显著升高，Fo的升高的原因可能源于少量捕光天线同反应中心的分离和反应中心的失活。 5．高等植物体的类囊体膜中存在多种Chla和Chlb的光谱吸收形式。这些代表不同的光谱吸收形式的组分在高温胁迫下表现出不同程度的降解，其中C678 和C684组分降解最快。这些不同的光谱吸收形式组分可能以不同的比例存在于每一种色素蛋白复合物中。 6．LHCII的结构与功能对于维持PSII结构与功能的热稳定性具有重要作用，LHCII完全缺失的水稻突变体VG28及分离纯化的PSII核心复介物都人大增强了对高温的敏感性。但一种LHCII减少的水稻突变体249-Mutant,反而增加了PSII的热稳定性，进一步的研究表明，类囊体膜中 LHCII本身含量的多少对PSII热稳定性的影响不足决定性的，关键性因素可能主要取决于 LHCII含量改变而引起的膜脂组成和膜脂不饱和程度的改变，以及由膜脂变化引起的PSII放氧复合体结构与功能的变化。 7．本研究首次发现，高温可以促使分离纯化的LHCII的红区吸收光谱发生显著红移，而680nm处的荧光发射降低，长波长荧光组分大大增强。绿胶电泳表明中度高温胁迫能够诱导LHCII产生寡聚体，这种寡聚体可能在调节能量耗散方面具有重要生理意义：而严重高温胁迫下LHCII倾向于聚合产生大分子的非活性聚集体。 8．分离纯化的反应中心对高温非常敏感，各种色素的结构和功能在轻度高温胁迫下就开始受到破坏和抑制，各种色素变性和降解的顺序由快到慢是：P680>Pheo>Chla>β-Car。反应中心的多肽组分在高温胁迫下显著减少，Dl和D2减少的原因可能归因于高温胁迫导致大分子聚合物的产生，D2的减少显著快于D1的减少。

表面活性剂存在下的光系统I的光合特性

本文主要研究了在非离子表面活性剂－辛基硫代葡萄糖苷（OTG）处理条件下菠菜叶绿体中光系统I（PSI）颗粒的光合特性，主要的研究结果如下： 1. 在所研究的OTG浓度范围内（0.01～13%，w/v），OTG对PSI的电子传递活性有显著的促进作用。而与此相对照，阴离子表面活性剂－十二烷基硫酸钠（SDS）对PSI的活性具有抑制作用。 2. OTG对PSI在SDS和高温（70℃）处理后失去的电子传递活性具有恢复作用。 3. OTG对PSI的色素结合状态和能量传递都有很大的影响，影响程度和影响方式与OTG的浓度有关。在其临界胶束浓度（cmc）以上的一定浓度范围内，OTG处理会导致PSI捕光天线色素蛋白复合体（LHCI）的解离;而更大浓度的OTG会使PSI中产生自由色素。

细胞色素b6f蛋白复合体中叶绿素 a的性质和功能研究

细胞色素b6f蛋白复合体（Cytochrome b6f complex, Cyt b6f）是光合膜上参与光合作用原初反应过程的主要膜蛋白超分子复合体之一。莱茵衣藻和嗜热蓝细菌的Cyt b6f三维晶体结构均显示，每Cyt b6f单体分子含有1分子Chlorophyll a (Chl a )，充分肯定了Chl a 是Cyt b6f天然成分的观点(Kurisu et al，2003;Stroebel et al，2003)。研究表明不同来源的Cyt b6f中Chla单线激发态寿命(或荧光寿命)并不一样，多数的研究结果认为Cyt b6f中Chla单线激发态寿命只有200ps左右，但是也有Cyt b6f中Chla单线激发态寿命为～600ps的报道;而甲醇中游离Chl a 的单线激发态寿命为4ns左右。针对Cyt b6f中Chla单线激发态寿命快速淬灭的现象，Dashdorj 等(2005)根据晶体结构推测Cyt b6f中Chla单线激发态和邻近的Cyt b6亚基上Tyr105残基发生电子交换传递，从而快速淬灭Chla单线激发态，减少了三线态Chl a和单线态氧的产生，并且认为这是Cyt b6f保护自身不受单线态氧破坏的一种机制，但是这一推测缺乏有力的证据。另外，Cyt b6f中Chla的功能仍然未知。本文以菠菜Cyt b6f为对象，结合多种实验手段，测定了菠菜Cyt b6f中Chl a单线激发态寿命，并对复合体中Chl a 单线激发态淬灭的机理进行了深入研究。此外，我们还对复合体中Chl a 可能的功能进行了初步地探讨。获得了如下的结果： 1．针对不同来源的Cyt b6f中Chla单线激发态寿命（或荧光寿命）测定结果不同的报道，仔细分析了其中的原因，发现除了样品来源的差异外，使用不同的去垢剂可能是一个不可忽视的因素。在实验中，不同的研究者分别采用了十二烷基麦芽糖苷（n-Dodecyl β-D-maltoside，DDM，）和八烷基葡萄糖苷（n-Octyl β-D-glucopyranoside，β－OG)作为溶解样品的去垢剂。因此，本文借助稳态吸收和稳态荧光光谱、瞬态光散射技术，CD光谱和亚皮秒时间分辨吸收光谱等技术，分别研究了这两种去垢剂对Cyt b6f结构和功能的不同影响。结果表明，DDM去垢剂能使Cyt b6f处于较好的分散体系中，其中血红素和Chl a分子处于特定的蛋白环境中，不会导致Cyt b6f变性;而β－OG去垢剂会使Cyt b6f产生聚合现象，其中的血红素和Chl a与蛋白环境的相互作用减弱，和DDM相比其电子传递活性显著降低，Chl a单线激发态寿命延长，Chl a更容易被光破坏。通过这一工作，我们优化和确定了Cyt b6f的溶解条件，为下面的研究工作打下了良好的基础。 2．利用Tyr的特异性修饰剂p-Nitrobenzenesulfonyl Fluoride（NBSF）对Cyt b6f样品进行特性修饰，经原子吸收谱、荧光谱、CD谱、质谱等方法对修饰后的样品进行鉴定，并结合时间分辨飞秒吸收光谱技术，测得修饰后的样品在660nm激发下Chl a 单线激发态寿命延长，从而在实验上提供了Tyr与淬灭Chla单线激发态有关的证据。但是对Cyt b6f 中Chl a瞬态吸收图谱仔细研究表明，菠菜Cyt b6f 中Chl a单线激发态快速淬灭过程中并没有发现Tyr与Chl a 之间发生电子传递时所形成的Chla•¯。以上结果表明，Cyt b6f 中Chl a单线激发态快速的淬灭确实和邻近的Tyr105有关，但是与Dashdorj 等提出的Chla单线激发态和Tyr105残基发生了电子交换传递从而淬灭Chla单线激发态这一想法不符，关于这一问题值得进一步深入研究。 3．红光和绿光对Cyt b6f 照射，Cyt f可以被还原，并且红光比绿光更容易使Cyt f 还原，暗示Cyt f 的还原与Chl a 的关系密切，有可能是Chl a 被激发后，其被激发的电子传给Cyt f。对这一现象的进一步研究表明，Cyt b6f在光照条件下，Cyt f 的还原与体系内C10－PQ库的氧化还原状况相关，氧化型的C10－PQ可能介导电子从Chla传向Cyt f。由于在体内质体醌库的氧化还原状态往往决定Cyt b6f 的氧化还原状态，而通过对Cyt b6f不同氧化和还原状态的吸收谱和荧光谱的研究表明，氧化态和还原态的Cyt b6f 中，Chl a 与蛋白的结合状态是有差异的。这些差异可能暗示着Chl a 分子在行使其功能时与复合体的氧化还原状态是有关系的。通过以上的结果，对Cyt b6f中Chl a 可能的功能进行了假设。 4．此外，我们还发现Cyt b6f具有明显的过氧化物酶活性。在0.1 mmol/L乙酸钠缓冲液，pH3.6，25℃，[H2O2] <40mmol/L的条件下，其催化反应的速度常数为kobs＝26±1.2M•s-1;对H2O2的Km 值为50mmol/L，对guaiacol的Km 值为2mmol/L;反应的最适pH为3.6，最适离子强度为0.1，最适温度为35℃。推测Cyt b6f的这种过氧化物酶活性可能是在胁迫环境下使Cyt b6f中的血红素和Chl a 分子免受H2O2的破坏。

Characteristics and comparative study of chlorophyll-protein complexes from siphonous green algae

By mild PAGE method, 11, 11, 7 and 9 chlorophyll-protein complexes were isolated from two species of siphonous green algae ( Codium fragile (Sur.) Harlot and Bryopsis corticulans Setch.), green alga (Ulothrix flacca (Dillw.) Thur.), and spinach (Spinacia oleracea Mill.), respectively. Apparent molecular weights, Chi a/b ratios, distribution of chlorophyll, absorption spectra, low temperature fluorescence spectra of these complexes were determined, and compared with one another. PS I complexes of two siphonous green algae are larger in apparent molecular weight because of the attachment of relative highly aggregated LHC I. Four isolated light-harvesting complexes of PSII are all siphonaxanthin-Chl a/b-protein complexes, and they are not monomers and oligomers like those in higher plants. Especially, the absence of 730 nn fluorescence in PS I complexes indicates a distinct structure and energy transfer pattern.

Isolation and nomenclature of pigment-protein complexes from the brown alga (Undaria pinnatifida Harv.)

Eight kinds of pigment-protein complexes were resolved from the thylakoid membrane of the brown alga (Undaria pinnatifida Harv.) by using non-ionic detergent decanoyl-N-methylglucamide and PAGE technique. According to the apparent molecular weights, spectra characteristics, polypeptide compositions and referring to the higher plant spinach, eight pigment-protein complexes were named under Anderson's terminology system as CP I a, CP I, CPa, LHC1, LHC2, LHC3, LHC4, LHC5.

Assessment of the nutritional value of wild leafy vegetables consumed in the Buhera District of Zimbabwe: a preliminary study

Wild leafy vegetables play a vital role in the livelihoods of many communities in Africa. The focus of this study was to investigate the nutritional value of wild vegetables commonly consumed by the people of Buhera District in the Manicaland province of Zimbabwe. A variety of vegetables including Amaranthus hybridus, Cleome gynandra, Bidens pilosa, Corchorus tridens, and Adansonia digitata were collected during a survey in Buhera District. Samples were processed employing traditional methods of cooking and drying, then subjected to proximate and micronutrient analyses. The results indicate that these vegetables were particularly high in calcium, iron, and vitamin C. Compared with Brassica napus (rape), Amaranthus hybridus contained twice the amount of calcium, with other nutrients almost in the same range. Compared with Spinacia oleracea (spinach), Amaranthus hybridus contained three times more vitamin C (44 mg/100 g). Calcium levels were 530 mg/100 g. Amaranthus hybridus was also found to contain 7, 13, and 20 times more vitamin C, calcium, and iron respectively compared with Lactuca sativa (lettuce). Cleome gynandra contained 14 mg/100 g, 115 mg/100 g, 9 mg/100 g of vitamin C, calcium, and iron respectively. Bidens pilosa was found to be a valuable source of vitamin C (63 mg/100 g), iron (15 mg/100 g), and zinc (19 mg/100 g), compared with Brassica oleracea (cabbage). The leaves of Corchorus tridens were an excellent source of vitamin C (78 mg/100 g), calcium (380 mg/100 g), and iron (8 mg/100 g). The Adansonia digitata leaves were also rich in vitamin C (55 mg/100 g), iron (23 mg/ 100 g), and calcium (400 mg/100 g). Based on these nutrient contents, the above vegetables will have potential benefits as part of feeding programmes, as well as their promotion as part of composite diet for vulnerable groups.

The effect of lutein- and zeaxanthin-rich foods v. supplements on macular pigment level and serological markers of endothelial activation inflammation and oxidation pilot studies in healthy volunteers:pilot studies in healthy volunteers

The aim of the present study was to compare the effect of lutein- and zeaxanthin-rich foods and supplements on macular pigment level (MPL) and serological markers of endothelial activation, inflammation and oxidation in healthy volunteers. We conducted two 8-week intervention studies. Study 1 (n 52) subjects were randomised to receive either carrot juice (a carotene-rich food) or spinach powder (a lutein- and zeaxanthin-rich food) for 8 weeks. Study 2 subjects (n 75) received supplements containing lutein and zeaxanthin, ß-carotene, or placebo for 8 weeks in a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. MPL, serum concentrations of lipid-soluble antioxidants, inter-cellular adhesion molecule 1, vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, C-reactive protein and F2-isoprostane levels were assessed at baseline and post-intervention in both studies. In these intervention studies, no effects on MPL or markers of endothelial activation, inflammation or oxidation were observed. However, the change in serum lutein and zeaxanthin was associated or tended to be associated with the change in MPL in those receiving lutein- and zeaxanthin-rich foods (lutein r 0.40, P = 0.05; zeaxanthin r 0.30, P = 0.14) or the lutein and zeaxanthin supplement (lutein r 0.43, P = 0.03; zeaxanthin r 0.22, P = 0.28). In both studies, the change in MPL was associated with baseline MPL (food study r - 0.54, P <0.001; supplement study r - 0.40, P <0.001). We conclude that this 8-week supplementation with lutein and zeaxanthin, whether as foods or as supplements, had no significant effect on MPL or serological markers of endothelial activation, inflammation and oxidation in healthy volunteers, but may improve MPL in the highest serum responders and in those with initially low MPL.

Arsenic Speciation and Localization in Horticultural Produce Grown in a Historically Impacted Mining Region

A field and market basket study (similar to 1300 samples) of locally grown fruits and vegetables from historically mined regions of southwest (SW) England (Cornwall and Devon), and as reference, a market basket study of similarly locally grown produce from the northeast (NE) of Scotland (Aberdeenshire) was conducted to determine the concentration of total and inorganic arsenic present in produce from these two geogenically different areas of the U.K. On average 98.5% of the total arsenic found was present in the inorganic form. For both the market basket and the field survey, the highest total arsenic was present in open leaf structure produce (i.e., kale, chard, lettuce, greens, and spinach) being most likely to soil/dust contamination of the open leaf structure. The concentration of total arsenic in potatoes, swedes, and carrots was lower in peeled produce compared to unpeeled produce. For baked potatoes, the concentration of total arsenic in the skin was higher compared to the total arsenic concentration of the potato flesh, this difference in localization being confirmed by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (LA-ICP-MS). For all above ground produce (e.g., apples), peeling did not have a significant effect on the concentration of total arsenic present.

Contribution of different vegetable types to exogenous nitrate and nitrite exposure

This study reports the levels of nitrate and nitrite of 34 vegetable samples, including different varieties of cabbage, lettuce, spinaches, parsley and turnips, collected in several locations of an intensive agricultural area (Modivas, Vila do Conde, northern Portugal). Nitrate levels ranged between 54 and 2440 mg NO-3 kg-1, while nitrite levels ranged between 1.1 and 57 mg NO-2 kg-1. The maximum residue levels established for nitrate in spinach and lettuce samples were not exceeded. Nitrate and nitrite levels reported in the literature for the same type of samples are reviewed, as well as the contribution of vegetables to nitrate and nitrite dietary exposure of populations.

Localization of the mechanism of pH-dependent non- photochemical fluorescence quenching in thylakoid membranes

Higher plants have evolved a well-conserved set of photoprotective mechanisms, collectively designated Non-Photochemical Quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence (qN), to deal with the inhibitory absorption of excess light energy by the photosystems. Their main contribution originates from safe thermal deactivation of excited states promoted by a highly-energized thylakoid membrane, detected via lumen acidification. The precise origins of this energy- or LlpH-dependent quenching (qE), arising from either decreased energy transfer efficiency in PSII antennae (~ Young & Frank, 1996; Gilmore & Yamamoto, 1992; Ruban et aI., 1992), from alternative electron transfer pathways in PSII reaction centres (~ Schreiber & Neubauer, 1990; Thompson &Brudvig, 1988; Klimov et aI., 1977), or from both (Wagner et aI., 1996; Walters & Horton, 1993), are a source of considerable controversy. In this study, the origins of qE were investigated in spinach thylakoids using a combination of fluorescence spectroscopic techniques: Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) fluorimetry, pump-probe fluorimetry for the measurement of PSII absorption crosssections, and picosecond fluorescence decay curves fit to a kinetic model for PSII. Quenching by qE (,..,600/0 of maximal fluorescence, Fm) was light-induced in circulating samples and the resulting pH gradient maintained during a dark delay by the lumenacidifying capabilities of thylakoid membrane H+ ATPases. Results for qE were compared to those for the addition of a known antenna quencher, 5-hydroxy-1,4naphthoquinone (5-0H-NQ), titrated to achieve the same degree of Fm quenching as for qE. Quenching of the minimal fluorescence yield, F0' was clear (8 to 130/0) during formation of qE, indicative of classical antenna quenching (Butler, 1984), although the degree was significantly less than that achieved by addition of 5-0H-NQ. Although qE induction resulted in an overall increase in absorption cross-section, unlike the decrease expected for antenna quenchers like the quinone, a larger increase in crosssection was observed when qE induction was attempted in thylakoids with collapsed pH gradients (uncoupled by nigericin), in the absence of xanthophyll cycle operation (inhibited by DTT), or in the absence of quenching (LlpH not maintained in the dark due to omission of ATP). Fluorescence decay curves exhibited a similar disparity between qE-quenched and 5-0H-NQ-quenched thylakoids, although both sets showed accelerated kinetics in the fastest decay components at both F0 and Fm. In addition, the kinetics of dark-adapted thylakoids were nearly identical to those in qEquenched samples at F0' both accelerated in comparison with thylakoids in which the redox poise of the Oxygen-Evolving Complex was randomized by exposure to low levels of background light (which allowed appropriate comparison with F0 yields from quenched samples). When modelled with the Reversible Radical Pair model for PSII (Schatz et aI., 1988), quinone quenching could be sufficiently described by increasing only the rate constant for decay in the antenna (as in Vasil'ev et aI., 1998), whereas modelling of data from qE-quenched thylakoids required changes in both the antenna rate constant and in rate constants for the reaction centre. The clear differences between qE and 5-0H-NQ quenching demonstrated that qE could not have its origins in the antenna alone, but is rather accompanied by reaction centre quenching. Defined mechanisms of reaction centre quenching are discussed, also in relation to the observed post-quenching depression in Fm associated with photoinhibition.

Competing demands for a complex system : photosystem II repair, photoprotection and quantum yield

Photosynthesis in general is a key biological process on Earth and Photo system II (PSII) is an important component of this process. PSII is the only enzyme capable of oxidizing water and is largely responsible for the primordial build-up and present maintenance of the oxygen in the atmosphere. This thesis endeavoured to understand the link between structure and function in PSII with special focus on primary photochemistry, repair/photodamage and spectral characteristics. The deletion of the PsbU subunit ofPSII in cyanobacteria caused a decoupling of the Phycobilisomes (PBS) from PSII, likely as a result of increased rates of PSII photodamage with the PBS decoupling acting as a measure to protect PSII from further damage. Isolated fractions of spinach thylakoid membranes were utilized to characterize the heterogeneity present in the various compartments of the thylakoid membrane. It was found that the pooled PSIILHCII pigment populations were connected in the grana stack and there was also a progressive decrease in the reaction rates of primary photochemistry and antennae size of PSII as the sample origin moved from grana to stroma. The results were consistent with PSII complexes becoming damaged in the grana and being sent to the stroma for repair. The dramatic quenching of variable fluorescence and overall fluorescent yield of PSII in desiccated lichens was also studied in order to investigate the mechanism by which the quenching operated. It was determined that the source of the quenching was a novel long wavelength emitting external quencher. Point mutations to amino acids acting as ligands to chromophores of interest in PSII were utilized in cyanobacteria to determine the role of specific chromophores in energy transfer and primary photochemistry. These results indicated that the Hl14 ligated chlorophyll acts as the 'trap' chlorophyll in CP47 at low temperature and that the Q130E mutation imparts considerable changes to PSII electron transfer kinetics, essentially protecting the complex via increased non-radiative charge Photosynthesis in general is a key biological process on Earth and Photo system II (PSII) is an important component of this process. PSII is the only enzyme capable of oxidizing water and is largely responsible for the primordial build-up and present maintenance of the oxygen in the atmosphere. This thesis endeavoured to understand the link between structure and function in PSII with special focus on primary photochemistry, repair/photodamage and spectral characteristics. The deletion of the PsbU subunit ofPSII in cyanobacteria caused a decoupling of the Phycobilisomes (PBS) from PSII, likely as a result of increased rates of PSII photodamage with the PBS decoupling acting as a measure to protect PSII from further damage. Isolated fractions of spinach thylakoid membranes were utilized to characterize the heterogeneity present in the various compartments of the thylakoid membrane. It was found that the pooled PSIILHCII pigment populations were connected in the grana stack and there was also a progressive decrease in the reaction rates of primary photochemistry and antennae size of PSII as the sample origin moved from grana to stroma. The results were consistent with PSII complexes becoming damaged in the grana and being sent to the stroma for repair. The dramatic quenching of variable fluorescence and overall fluorescent yield of PSII in desiccated lichens was also studied in order to investigate the mechanism by which the quenching operated. It was determined that the source of the quenching was a novel long wavelength emitting external quencher. Point mutations to amino acids acting as ligands to chromophores of interest in PSII were utilized in cyanobacteria to determine the role of specific chromophores in energy transfer and primary photochemistry. These results indicated that the Hl14 ligated chlorophyll acts as the 'trap' chlorophyll in CP47 at low temperature and that the Q130E mutation imparts considerable changes to PSII electron transfer kinetics, essentially protecting the complex via increased non-radiative charge.

Untersuchungen über die Redoxregulation der Glutathionsynthese und Charakterisierung von Glutaredoxinen in Spinat

Die an der Glutathionsynthese im Chloroplasten von Spinatblättern beteiligten Enzyme sind auf eine lichtabhängige Regulation durch Thioredoxine (Trx) und Glutaredoxine (Grx) hin untersucht worden. Dazu wurde eine neue, vereinfachte Methode zur Aktivitätsbestimmung für die gamma-Glutamylcystein- und Glutathionsynthetase auf der Kapillarelektrophorese entwickelt. Untersuchungen mit den homologen Thioredoxinen Trx m und Trx f aus Spinatchloroplasten und mit dem E.coli Trx und E.coli Grx 1 zeigten, dass bei beiden Enzymen keine Redoxmodulation durch diese Proteine stattfindet. Weitere Untersuchungen mit der Glutathionsynthetase zeigten keinen Einfluss von Dithiothreit, Sulfit-Ionen und Ascorbat auf die Enzymaktivität. Nur H2O2, in unphysiologischen Konzentrationen, bewirkte eine leichte Abnahme der Ausgangsaktivität. Im Fall der gamma-Glutamylcysteinsynthetase konnten verschiedene Einflüsse ausgemacht werden. So war mit Dithiothreit und H2O2 bei niedrigen Konzentrationen eine Stimulation und bei höheren Konzentration eine Inhibition der Enzymaktivität festzustellen: Sulfit-Ionen zeigten eine starke Stimulierung der gamma-Glutamylcysteinsynthetase über einen weiten Konzentrationsbereich, wobei eine starke pH-Wert-Abhängigkeit der Stimulation zu beobachten war. Ascorbat zeigte, wie bei der Glutathionsynthetase, keinen Einfluss auf die Enzymaktivität der gamma-Glutamyl-cysteinsynthetase. In einem zweiten Teil der Arbeit über die Glutaredoxine des Spinats konnte ein 12,4 kDa Protein mit Thioltransferase-Aktivität, das bisher als cytosolisches Glutaredoxin beschrieben wurde, aufgereinigt und mittels N-terminaler Sequenzierung eindeutig als ein Glutaredoxin identifiziert werden. Überdies konnte ein noch nicht beschriebenes 12,8 kDa Protein mit Thioltransferase-Aktivität aus Spinatchloroplasten aufgereinigt werden. Durch Peptid-Sequenzierung gelang es dieses Protein auch als ein Glutaredoxin zu identifizieren. Beide pflanzlichen Glutaredoxine zeigten keine Modulation der Aktivitäten der chloroplastidären Fructosebisphosphatase (FbPase) und NADPH-Malatdehydrogenase (NADPH-MDH). Auch war mit beiden Glutaredoxinen keine Dehydroascorbatreduktase-Aktivität, oder eine Stimulation der Ribonucleotidreduktase aus Lactobacillus leichmannii festzustellen.

Das OEE-Protein 1 des Photosystem II (oxygen evolving enhancer) der Grünalge Scenedesmus obliquus besitzt Thioredoxin-Aktivität

Die Aminosäure-Sequenzierung an dem als "28 kDa-Thioredoxin f" beschriebenen Protein aus der Grünalge Scenedesmus obliquus hat gezeigt, dass dieses Protein mit dem als OEE bekannten Protein 1 aus dem Photosystem II identisch ist. Die früher postulierte Möglichkeit einer Fusion eines Thioredoxins mit einem Protein unbekannter Natur oder Insertion eines Thioredoxinfragments mit der typischen -Trp-Cys-Gly-Pro-Cys-Sequenz in ein solches Protein hat sich nicht bestätigt. Durch Anwendung einer auf das 33 kDa OEE-Protein ausgerichteten Präparationsmethode konnte gezeigt werden, dass das "28 kDa-Trx f" tatsächlich in den Thylakoidmembranen lokalisiert ist. Das Protein kann so innerhalb eines Tages in hoher Reinheit aus den Thylakoidmembranfragmenten eines Algenrohhomogenats isoliert werden; dabei bleibt die Fähigkeit des OEE-Proteins das chloroplastidäre Enzym Fructosebisphosphatase (FbPase) zu stimulieren erhalten. Mit gleichen Methoden wurden die Grünalgen Chlorella vulgaris und Chlamydomonas reinhardtii auf außergewöhnliche Proteine mit Trx-f Aktivität untersucht. Die hitze- und säurestabile Proteinfraktion aus Chlorella vulgaris enthält ein Protein mit vergleichbarer Molmasse von 26 kDa, das ähnlich wie in Scenedesmus eine Stimulation der chloroplastidären Fructosebisphosphatase zeigt. In dem hitze- und säurestabilen Proteinextrakt aus Chlamydomonas reinhardtii wird solche Aktivität nicht beobachtet. Eine Probe des rekombinanten, homogenen OEE-Proteins aus Spinat wurde auf Stimulation der chloroplastidären FbPase und NADPH-abhängigen Malatdehydrogenase (MDH) untersucht. Das Spinat OEE-Protein 1 zeigt mit diesen Enzymen keine Aktivität. Da das OEE-Protein 1 in Scenedesmus starke FbPase-Stimulation zeigt, die anderen Scenedesmus-Thioredoxine mit Molmassen von 12 kDa (Trx I und II) jedoch hohe Aktivität mit der zellulären Ribonucleotidreduktase zeigen, wird postuliert, dass das OEE-Protein die Funktion des Trx-f in vivo ersetzt.