An epistemic community as influencer and implementer in local government accounting in Australia

This paper adopts an epistemic community framework to explicate the dual role of epistemic communities as influencers of accounting policy within regulatory space and as implementers who effect change within the domain of accounting. The context is the adoption and implementation of fair value accounting within local government in New South Wales (NSW). The roles and functions of Australian local government are extensive, and include the development and maintenance of infrastructure, provision of recreational facilities, certain health and community services, buildings, cultural facilities, and in some cases, water and sewerage (Australian Local Government Association, 2009). The NSW state Department of Local Government (DLG) is responsible for legislation and policy development to ensure that local councils are able to deliver ‘quality services to their communities in a sustainable manner’ (DLG, 2008c). These local councils receive revenue from various sources including property rates, government grants and user-pays service provision. In July 2006 the DLG issued Circular 06-453 to councils (DLG, 2006c), mandating the staged adoption of fair value measurement of infrastructure assets. This directive followed the policy of NSW State Treasury (NSW Treasury, 2007),4 and an independent inquiry into the financial sustainability of local councils (LGSA, 2006). It was an attempt to resolve the inconsistency in public sector asset valuation in NSW Local Governments, and to provide greater usefulness and comparability of financial statements.5 The focus of this study is the mobilization of accounting change by the DLG within this wider political context. When a regulatory problem arises, those with political power seek advice from professionals with relevant skill and expertise (Potter, 2005). This paper explores the way in which professionals diffuse accounting ‘problems’ and the associated accounting solutions ‘across time and space’ (Potter, 2005, p. 277). The DLG’s fair value accounting policy emanated from a ‘regulatory space’ (Hancher and Moran, 1989)6 as a result of negotiations between many parties, including accounting and finance professionals. Operating within the local government sector, these professionals were identified by the DLG as being capable of providing helpful input. They were also responsible for the implementation of the new olicy within local councils. Accordingly they have been dentified as an pistemic community with the ability to ranslate regulatory power by changing he domain of ccounting (Potter, 2005, p. 278).7 The paper is organised as follows. The background to the LG’s decision to require the introduction of fair value accounting for infrastructure assets is explored. Following this, the method of the study is described, and the epistemic community framework outlined. In the next sections, evidence of the influencing and implementing roles of epistemic groups is provided. Finally, conclusions are drawn about the significance of these groups both within regulatory space in developing accounting regulation, and in embedding change within the domain of accounting.

Performance evaluation of onsite sewage treatment : Evaluation of current research

Efficient management of domestic wastewater is a primary requirement for human well being. Failure to adequately address issues of wastewater collection, treatment and disposal can lead to adverse public health and environmental impacts. The increasing spread of urbanisation has led to the conversion of previously rural land into urban developments and the more intensive development of semi urban areas. However the provision of reticulated sewerage facilities has not kept pace with this expansion in urbanisation. This has resulted in a growing dependency on onsite sewage treatment. Though considered only as a temporary measure in the past, these systems are now considered as the most cost effective option and have become a permanent feature in some urban areas. This report is the first of a series of reports to be produced and is the outcome of a research project initiated by the Brisbane City Council. The primary objective of the research undertaken was to relate the treatment performance of onsite sewage treatment systems with soil conditions at site, with the emphasis being on septic tanks. This report consists of a ‘state of the art’ review of research undertaken in the arena of onsite sewage treatment. The evaluation of research brings together significant work undertaken locally and overseas. It focuses mainly on septic tanks in keeping with the primary objectives of the project. This report has acted as the springboard for the later field investigations and analysis undertaken as part of the project. Septic tanks still continue to be used widely due to their simplicity and low cost. Generally the treatment performance of septic tanks can be highly variable due to numerous factors, but a properly designed, operated and maintained septic tank can produce effluent of satisfactory quality. The reduction of hydraulic surges from washing machines and dishwashers, regular removal of accumulated septage and the elimination of harmful chemicals are some of the practices that can improve system performance considerably. The relative advantages of multi chamber over single chamber septic tanks is an issue that needs to be resolved in view of the conflicting research outcomes. In recent years, aerobic wastewater treatment systems (AWTS) have been gaining in popularity. This can be mainly attributed to the desire to avoid subsurface effluent disposal, which is the main cause of septic tank failure. The use of aerobic processes for treatment of wastewater and the disinfection of effluent prior to disposal is capable of producing effluent of a quality suitable for surface disposal. However the field performance of these has been disappointing. A significant number of these systems do not perform to stipulated standards and quality can be highly variable. This is primarily due to houseowner neglect or ignorance of correct operational and maintenance procedures. The other problems include greater susceptibility to shock loadings and sludge bulking. As identified in literature a number of design features can also contribute to this wide variation in quality. The other treatment processes in common use are the various types of filter systems. These include intermittent and recirculating sand filters. These systems too have their inherent advantages and disadvantages. Furthermore as in the case of aerobic systems, their performance is very much dependent on individual houseowner operation and maintenance practices. In recent years the use of biofilters has attracted research interest and particularly the use of peat. High removal rates of various wastewater pollutants have been reported in research literature. Despite these satisfactory results, leachate from peat has been reported in various studies. This is an issue that needs further investigations and as such biofilters can still be considered to be in the experimental stage. The use of other filter media such as absorbent plastic and bark has also been reported in literature. The safe and hygienic disposal of treated effluent is a matter of concern in the case of onsite sewage treatment. Subsurface disposal is the most common and the only option in the case of septic tank treatment. Soil is an excellent treatment medium if suitable conditions are present. The processes of sorption, filtration and oxidation can remove the various wastewater pollutants. The subsurface characteristics of the disposal area are among the most important parameters governing process performance. Therefore it is important that the soil and topographic conditions are taken into consideration in the design of the soil absorption system. Seepage trenches and beds are the common systems in use. Seepage pits or chambers can be used where subsurface conditions warrant, whilst above grade mounds have been recommended for a variety of difficult site conditions. All these systems have their inherent advantages and disadvantages and the preferable soil absorption system should be selected based on site characteristics. The use of gravel as in-fill for beds and trenches is open to question. It does not contribute to effluent treatment and has been shown to reduce the effective infiltrative surface area. This is due to physical obstruction and the migration of fines entrained in the gravel, into the soil matrix. The surface application of effluent is coming into increasing use with the advent of aerobic treatment systems. This has the advantage that treatment is undertaken on the upper soil horizons, which is chemically and biologically the most effective in effluent renovation. Numerous research studies have demonstrated the feasibility of this practice. However the overriding criteria is the quality of the effluent. It has to be of exceptionally good quality in order to ensure that there are no resulting public health impacts due to aerosol drift. This essentially is the main issue of concern, due to the unreliability of the effluent quality from aerobic systems. Secondly, it has also been found that most householders do not take adequate care in the operation of spray irrigation systems or in the maintenance of the irrigation area. Under these circumstances surface disposal of effluent should be approached with caution and would require appropriate householder education and stringent compliance requirements. However despite all this, the efficiency with which the process is undertaken will ultimately rest with the individual householder and this is where most concern rests. Greywater too should require similar considerations. Surface irrigation of greywater is currently being permitted in a number of local authority jurisdictions in Queensland. Considering the fact that greywater constitutes the largest fraction of the total wastewater generated in a household, it could be considered to be a potential resource. Unfortunately in most circumstances the only pretreatment that is required to be undertaken prior to reuse is the removal of oil and grease. This is an issue of concern as greywater can considered to be a weak to medium sewage as it contains primary pollutants such as BOD material and nutrients and may also include microbial contamination. Therefore its use for surface irrigation can pose a potential health risk. This is further compounded by the fact that most householders are unaware of the potential adverse impacts of indiscriminate greywater reuse. As in the case of blackwater effluent reuse, there have been suggestions that greywater should also be subjected to stringent guidelines. Under these circumstances the surface application of any wastewater requires careful consideration. The other option available for the disposal effluent is the use of evaporation systems. The use of evapotranspiration systems has been covered in this report. Research has shown that these systems are susceptible to a number of factors and in particular to climatic conditions. As such their applicability is location specific. Also the design of systems based solely on evapotranspiration is questionable. In order to ensure more reliability, the systems should be designed to include soil absorption. The successful use of these systems for intermittent usage has been noted in literature. Taking into consideration the issues discussed above, subsurface disposal of effluent is the safest under most conditions. This is provided the facility has been designed to accommodate site conditions. The main problem associated with subsurface disposal is the formation of a clogging mat on the infiltrative surfaces. Due to the formation of the clogging mat, the capacity of the soil to handle effluent is no longer governed by the soil’s hydraulic conductivity as measured by the percolation test, but rather by the infiltration rate through the clogged zone. The characteristics of the clogging mat have been shown to be influenced by various soil and effluent characteristics. Secondly, the mechanisms of clogging mat formation have been found to be influenced by various physical, chemical and biological processes. Biological clogging is the most common process taking place and occurs due to bacterial growth or its by-products reducing the soil pore diameters. Biological clogging is generally associated with anaerobic conditions. The formation of the clogging mat provides significant benefits. It acts as an efficient filter for the removal of microorganisms. Also as the clogging mat increases the hydraulic impedance to flow, unsaturated flow conditions will occur below the mat. This permits greater contact between effluent and soil particles thereby enhancing the purification process. This is particularly important in the case of highly permeable soils. However the adverse impacts of the clogging mat formation cannot be ignored as they can lead to significant reduction in the infiltration rate. This in fact is the most common cause of soil absorption systems failure. As the formation of the clogging mat is inevitable, it is important to ensure that it does not impede effluent infiltration beyond tolerable limits. Various strategies have been investigated to either control clogging mat formation or to remediate its severity. Intermittent dosing of effluent is one such strategy that has attracted considerable attention. Research conclusions with regard to short duration time intervals are contradictory. It has been claimed that the intermittent rest periods would result in the aerobic decomposition of the clogging mat leading to a subsequent increase in the infiltration rate. Contrary to this, it has also been claimed that short duration rest periods are insufficient to completely decompose the clogging mat, and the intermediate by-products that form as a result of aerobic processes would in fact lead to even more severe clogging. It has been further recommended that the rest periods should be much longer and should be in the range of about six months. This entails the provision of a second and alternating seepage bed. The other concepts that have been investigated are the design of the bed to meet the equilibrium infiltration rate that would eventuate after clogging mat formation; improved geometry such as the use of seepage trenches instead of beds; serial instead of parallel effluent distribution and low pressure dosing of effluent. The use of physical measures such as oxidation with hydrogen peroxide and replacement of the infiltration surface have been shown to be only of short-term benefit. Another issue of importance is the degree of pretreatment that should be provided to the effluent prior to subsurface application and the influence exerted by pollutant loadings on the clogging mat formation. Laboratory studies have shown that the total mass loadings of BOD and suspended solids are important factors in the formation of the clogging mat. It has also been found that the nature of the suspended solids is also an important factor. The finer particles from extended aeration systems when compared to those from septic tanks will penetrate deeper into the soil and hence will ultimately cause a more dense clogging mat. However the importance of improved pretreatment in clogging mat formation may need to be qualified in view of other research studies. It has also shown that effluent quality may be a factor in the case of highly permeable soils but this may not be the case with fine structured soils. The ultimate test of onsite sewage treatment system efficiency rests with the final disposal of effluent. The implication of system failure as evidenced from the surface ponding of effluent or the seepage of contaminants into the groundwater can be very serious as it can lead to environmental and public health impacts. Significant microbial contamination of surface and groundwater has been attributed to septic tank effluent. There are a number of documented instances of septic tank related waterborne disease outbreaks affecting large numbers of people. In a recent incident, the local authority was found liable for an outbreak of viral hepatitis A and not the individual septic tank owners as no action had been taken to remedy septic tank failure. This illustrates the responsibility placed on local authorities in terms of ensuring the proper operation of onsite sewage treatment systems. Even a properly functioning soil absorption system is only capable of removing phosphorus and microorganisms. The nitrogen remaining after plant uptake will not be retained in the soil column, but will instead gradually seep into the groundwater as nitrate. Conditions for nitrogen removal by denitrification are not generally present in a soil absorption bed. Dilution by groundwater is the only treatment available for reducing the nitrogen concentration to specified levels. Therefore based on subsurface conditions, this essentially entails a maximum allowable concentration of septic tanks in a given area. Unfortunately nitrogen is not the only wastewater pollutant of concern. Relatively long survival times and travel distances have been noted for microorganisms originating from soil absorption systems. This is likely to happen if saturated conditions persist under the soil absorption bed or due to surface runoff of effluent as a result of system failure. Soils have a finite capacity for the removal of phosphorus. Once this capacity is exceeded, phosphorus too will seep into the groundwater. The relatively high mobility of phosphorus in sandy soils have been noted in the literature. These issues have serious implications in the design and siting of soil absorption systems. It is not only important to ensure that the system design is based on subsurface conditions but also the density of these systems in given areas is a critical issue. This essentially involves the adoption of a land capability approach to determine the limitations of an individual site for onsite sewage disposal. The most limiting factor at a particular site would determine the overall capability classification for that site which would also dictate the type of effluent disposal method to be adopted.

Application of kaolin amorphous derivative as a nitrogen carrier

Sandy soils have low nutrient holding capacity and high water conductivity. Consequently, nutrients applied as highly soluble chemical fertilisers are prone to leaching, particularly in heavily irrigated environments such as horticultural soils and golf courses. Amorphous derivatives of kaolin with high cation exchange capacity may be loaded with desired nutrients and applied as controlledrelease fertilisers. Kaolin is an abundant mineral, which can be converted to a meso-porous amorphous derivative (KAD) using facile chemical processes. KAD is currently being used to sequester ammonium from digester effluent in sewage treatment plants in a commercial environment. This material is also known in Australia by the trade name MesoLite. The ammonium-saturated form of KAD may be applied to soils as a nitrogen fertiliser. Up to 7% N can be loaded onto KAD by contacting it with high-ammonia concentration wastewater from sewerage treatment plants. This poster paper demonstrates plant uptake of nitrogen from KAD and compares its efficiency as a fertiliser with NH4SO4. Rye grass was grown in 1kg pots in a glass-house. Nitrogen was applied at a range of rates using NH4SO4 and two KAD materials carrying 7% and 3% nitrogen, respectively. All other nutrients were applied in adequate amounts. All treatments were replicated three times. Plants were harvested after four weeks. Dry mass and N concentrations were determined by standard methods. At all N application rates, ammonium-loaded KAD produced significantly higher plant mass than for NH4SO4. The lower fertiliser effectiveness of NH4SO4 is attributed to possible loss of some N through volatilisation. Of the two KAD types, the material with lower CEC value supported slightly higher plant yields. The KAD materials did not show any adverse effect on availability of trace elements, as evidenced by lack of deficiency symptoms and plant analyses. Clearly, nitrogen loaded on to KAD in the form of ammonium is likely to be protected from leaching, but is still available to plants. These data suggest that KAD-based fertilisers may be suitable substitutes for water soluble N, K and other cation fertilisers for leaching soils.

Measuring drug use patterns in Queensland through wastewater analysis

Estimating the use of illicit drugs in the general community is an important task with ramifications for law enforcement agencies, as well as health portfolios. Australia has four ongoing drug monitoring systems, including the AIC’s DUMA program, the National Drug Strategy Household Survey, the Illicit Drug Reporting System and the Ecstasy and Related Drug Reporting System. The systems vary in methods, but broadly they are reliant upon self-report data and may be subject to selection biases. The present study employed a completely different method. By chemically analysing sewerage water, the study produced daily estimates of consumption of methamphetamine, MDMA and cocaine. Samples were collected in November 2009 and November 2010 from a municipality in Queensland, with an population of over 150,000 people. Estimates were made of the average daily dose and average daily street value per 1,000 people. On the basis of estimated dose and price, the methamphetamine market appeared considerably stronger than either MDMA or cocaine. This paper explains the strengths and weaknesses of wastewater analysis. It considers the potential value of wastewater analysis in measuring net consumption of illicit drugs and the effectiveness of law enforcement agency strategies.

Investigations on phytoplankton with special reference to water usage

Experiments and observations on the phytoplankton of certain lakes in the English Lake District were made from early 1973 to the end of March, 1974. They included laboratory and lake bioassays and observations on the quantity and quality of the phytoplankton in six lakes. The introductory sections of the report are about algae, the ecology of phytoplankton and the scope of the contracted work. Laboratory bioassays on water from one lake, Blelham Tarn, showed that phosphorus, silicon (for diatoms) and organic substances forming complexes with iron were the major substances limiting the growth of the algae tested. The growth of the test algae was limited to different degrees by those substances and, to some extent, to a greater or lesser degree at different times of year. It is suggested that a relatively simple form of bioassay could give valuable information to water undertakings. Lake bioassays and other experiments were carried out by using large in situ tubular plastic enclosures. Two such investigations are described. The effects of a change in sewerage in two drainage basins on the phytoplankton of three lakes is described and some data given about changes since 1945 in three other lakes in the same overall drainage basin. These latter lakes have been affected too by changes in sewerage and by increasing inputs of domestic and agricultural wastes. Throughout, the relevance of the work done to practical problems of water usage is kept in mind and discussed. In the last section special reference is made to the largely unpredictable results of water transfers. The report ends with a note on river phytoplankton.

Diagnóstico ambiental dos Rios da Prata e Catumbi e balneabilidade da praia: estudo de caso em Muriqui, Mangaratiba RJ.

A constante exploração da água de forma descontrolada tem comprometido a sua qualidade e quantidade para os seus diversos fins, dentre os quais se destaca o uso recreativo por contato primário. O presente estudo levanta um problema frequente no litoral brasileiro: cidades que recebem um elevado número de visitantes em determinados períodos do ano e sofrem crises ambientais por conta da mudança drástica no volume populacional, já que a população flutuante dificulta a gestão de insumos públicos como o abastecimento de água potável, os serviços de saúde, o descarte de lixo e o tratamento de esgoto, sendo muitas vezes responsável por uma poluição local. Nesse sentido, utilizou-se como modelo o balneário de Muriqui, distrito de Mangaratiba, no Estado do Rio de Janeiro, e objetivou-se diagnosticar a poluição hídrica e a balneabilidade da praia. A metodologia empregada para o desenvolvimento desta pesquisa foi baseada em pesquisas bibliográficas, por trabalhos técnico-científicos publicados, livros e instrumentos legais, e em um plano de amostragem. . Foram também realizadas visitas às secretarias municipais para recolher dados atuais sobre o município. Por fim, para confrontar os resultados analíticos obtidos em campo, realizou-se uma investigação da série histórica da pluviosidade das estações pluviométricas mais próximas ao distrito de Muriqui. Para verificar a qualidade da água da praia e dos dois rios que desembocam nela, foi realizado um plano de amostragem com coletas quinzenais, às segundas-feiras pela manhã, entre setembro de 2012 e agosto de 2013, totalizando 25 campanhas. Em cada campanha foram coletados cinco pontos de amostragem: três na praia de Muriqui, um no Rio da Prata e outro no Rio Catumbi. Assim, realizou-se o monitoramento de parâmetros físicos, químicos e biológicos, com o intuito de compará-los aos valores permitidos pelas legislações vigentes e correlacioná-los entre si para verificar o nível de degradação dos corpos hídricos da região. Constatou-se com o estudo que o ponto no Rio da Prata é o mais deteriorado e impactado pela ação antrópica, já que estava localizado mais próximo à sua foz. A avaliação da qualidade da água da praia indicou que o local apresentava condições excelentes de balneabilidade em 96% do período monitorado, apresentando apenas um episódio impróprio para banho. De modo geral, verificou-se com a pesquisa que alguns parâmetros demonstraram episódios característicos de poluição difusa por esgoto sanitário, aparentemente em estado inicial de degradação.

Ecossistema Engenheirado no tratamento descentralizado de águas residuárias de pequenos geradores: A Engenharia Ecológica na Ilha Grande, RJ.

Em várias regiões do mundo, assim como no Brasil, um alto percentual da população e até comunidades inteiras não têm acesso a um sistema de tratamento de esgoto centralizado, sendo comum o uso das fossas sépticas e/ou sumidouros e, em muitos casos, os esgotos são lançados in natura diretamente nos corpos hídricos. Com o objetivo de oferecer uma alternativa tecnológica de baixo custo de implantação e operação com vistas à minimização dos impactos ambientais e em atendimento a pequenas comunidades isoladas e de interesse social, o presente projeto desenvolveu com base em sistemas apresentados na literatura, um ecossistema engenheirado compacto para o tratamento de esgoto domiciliar de pequenos geradores. O sistema é composto por tratamento preliminar (caixa controladora de vazão e caixa de gordura), primário (fossa séptica), secundário (filtro aerado submerso e decantador secundário) e um conjunto de tanques vegetados por macrófitas aquáticas (Eichhornia crassipes, Schoenoplectus sp., Panicum cf. racemosum) intercalados por um tanque de algas para remoção da carga poluidora remanescente e nutrientes. O sistema foi instalado no CEADS/UERJ na Vila de Dois Rios, Ilha Grande, litoral Sul do Rio de Janeiro, operado e monitorado desde Abril de 2009, sendo que o presente estudo referese aos primeiros 200 dias de monitoramento. A remoção da carga poluidora foi monitorada na vazão de 200 L/h, posteriormente corrigida para 52 L/h, almejando alcançar os padrões de lançamento da Resolução CONAMA 357 e a NBR 13969 da ABNT, para os parâmetros de OD, pH, Temperatura, Nitrato, N amoniacal, DBO5, DQO, SSD, Cloreto e, Óleos e Graxas e outros parâmetros não incluídos na Resolução (Cond. Elétrica, COT, Alcalinidade, Dureza, Nitrito, Fósforo total e demais Sólidos (ST, SST, SSV, SSF e SDT ). Os resultados obtidos indicam que o sistema foi mais eficiente quando operado na vazão de 52 L/h, quando apresentou as seguintes taxas de remoção: 96 % (Nitrito); 71 % (Nitrato); 47 % (N amoniacal); 96,7 % (DQO); 95,7 % (DBO5); 10 % (Fósforo total). O sistema apresentou uma evolução ao longo do tempo de operação e após a redução na vazão, garantiu o enquadramento de 12 dos 14 parâmetros analisados (exceto N amoniacal e Fósforo total), nos padrões de lançamento contemplados pela Legislação Federal, CONAMA 357 e Legislação Estadual do RJ, SP, MG e GO. Para aumento da eficiência de tratamento, recomenda-se redimensionamento do filtro aerado submerso-decantador e tanques vegetados, com base nas recomendações do PROSAB 2.

Lune, Wyre & Furness Fisheries Advisory Committee 3rd July, 1978

This is the report from the Lune, Wyre and Furness Fisheries Advisory Committee meeting, which was held on the 3rd July, 1978. It covers information on the monitoring of radioactivity in migratory fish, fishing offences and prosecutions, the income from sale of rod and line licences, the review of discharge consent conditions, illegal netting, the Morecambe and Heysham sewerage scheme and fish counting work. It also covers the report by the area fisheries officer on river conditions and fishing for Lune, Furness, Wyre and tributaries. Also covered in the report is information on migratory fish movements, fish monitoring stations, Middleton hatchery, fish mortalities, fish diseases, biological work and stocking numbers of brown trout, rainbow trout and coarse fish by the Angling Associations. The Fisheries Advisory Committee was part of the Regional Water Authorities, in this case the North West Water Authority. This preceded the Environment Agency which came into existence in 1996.

River Irk intensive survey

This is the River Irk intensive survey produced by the North West Water in 1986. This report focuses on the Intensive Survey carried out on the River Irk on 15 April 1986. The river Irk was one of the most polluted rivers in North West Water's area. In dry weather the bulk of the flow in the river originated from the 3 sewage works within the catchment (Castleton ETW, Royton ETW and Oldham ETW). The river Irk was badly affected by numerous unsatisfactory storm sewage overflows (SSOs) within the catchment. Several sewerage projects had been carried out within the Irk catchment especially in the Middleton area, where earlier major redevelopment of the old town centre took place between 1969 and 1976, at which time the main sewers were reconstructed. The survey was designed to investigate the changes in the water quality of the river Irk which take place during wet weather. Because of manpower and analytical restrictions the study on Wince Brook and the river Irk upstream of Wince Brook was limited to their bottom reaches.

Socio-economic monitoring report for St Martin's Island, Bangladesh

This report was based on fieldwork conducted by trainees at the Socio-economic Monitoring (SocMon) workshop held at St Martin's Island. Topics included: community infrastructure; educational services; health services; water and sewerage; coastal and marine activities; material style of life; status of women; governance; and perceptions

The role of infrastructure in improving human settlements

This paper considers how the provision of integrated household-level infrastructure – particularly water and environmental sanitation (including water supply, sewerage, roads, storm drainage and solid waste management) –can play a leading role in improving the conditions in slum settlements. Around 700 socio-economic interviews were carried out in India and South Africa to investigate an innovative approach called slum networking, which sees the strong correlation between slum locations and drainage paths as an opportunity for improving the wider urban environment. This recognition allows resources to be mobilised locally, thereby removing the need for external aid funding. The evidence from the 700 families shows that communities perceive water and sanitation inputs to be their top priority and are willing to contribute to the costs. If slum upgrading is led with access to integrated water and environmental sanitation at household level with community contributions to the cost of infrastructure, then slum communities subsequently invest considerably greater sums in improved housing and education, with longer term contributions to poverty alleviation, improvements in health and literacy and an increase in disposable incomes.

Finance for water and sanitation as a public service

Drawing on empirical evidence gathered through the PSIRU database, this contribution aims at addressing the potential of public finance to enhance the provision of water supply and sanitation as a public service. It highlights the problems associated with (and the disappointing results obtained from) resort to Private Sector Participation and private finance, both historically and in the last 15-20 years, in developed and developing countries. It also addresses the advantages of using public finance as a more cost-effective and equitable instrument to achieve developmental objectives such as the expansion of service coverage and development of water and sanitation infrastructure. The potential of public operations in maximising developmental impact from the social, economic and environmental points of view is then explored referring to specific examples from a variety of countries and regions. These include the in-house restructuring of public operations to enhance transparency, accountability and effectiveness, as well as the use of Public-Public Partnerships (PUPs) to build capacity. Attention is devoted to the specific financial requirements of expanding sewerage services at global level to achieve MDGs or broader developmental goals. These requirements are revisited in light of a regional breakdown of coverage gaps, available resources and development aid flows. These findings challenge the established view among international and bilateral agencies that expanding sewerage services in developing countries is excessively costly and should be abandoned as a priority because unaffordable. This contribution draws on a number of PSIRU Reports, and particularly the following. - http://www.psiru.org/reports/2008-03-W-sewers.pdf - http://boell-latinoamerica.org/download_es/agua08_privatizacion_LA_2007.pdf - http://boell-latinoamerica.org/download_es/agua08_agua_un_servicio_publico.pdf - http://www.psiru.org/reports/2006-03-W-investment.pdf All PSIRU Reports are accessible at http://www.psiru.org/publicationsindex.asp.

Water efficiency as a means of reducing carbon emissions in Northern Ireland (NI) Water

The water and sewerage sectors' combined emissions account for just over 1% of total UK emissions, while household water heating accounts for a further 5%. Energy use, particularly electricity, is the largest source of emissions in the sector. Water efficiency measures should therefore result in reduced emissions from a lower demand for water and wastewater treatment and pumping, as well as from decreased domestic water heating. Northern Ireland Water (NI Water) is actively pursuing measures to reduce its carbon footprint. This paper investigated the carbon impacts of implementing a household water efficiency programme in Northern Ireland. Assuming water savings of 59.6 L/prop/day and 15% uptake among households, carbon savings of 0.6% of NI Water's current net operational emissions are achievable from reduced treatment and pumping. Adding the carbon savings from reduced household water heating gives savings equivalent to 6.2% of current net operational emissions. Cost savings to NI Water are estimated as 300,000 per year. The cost of the water efficiency devices is approximately 1.6 million, but may be higher depending on the number of devices distributed relative to the number installed. This paper has shown clear carbon benefits to water efficiency, but further research is needed to examine social and cost impacts. © IWA Publishing 2013.

Reclamações em matéria de ambiente nos municípios envolventes à ria de Aveiro

O presente trabalho de investigação centra-se no estudo das reclamações em matéria de ambiente submetidas às Câmaras dos municípios envolventes à Ria de Aveiro entre os anos de 2000 e 2007. Pretendeu compreender-se de que forma podem ser caracterizadas as reclamações, nomeadamente a análise temporal, os principais atores envolvidos na apresentação e na resolução das reclamações, os imputados pelos problemas ambientais levantados, as tipologias de problemas de ambiente associadas às reclamações, o padrão territorial que assumem e as resoluções aplicadas. Procurou ainda compreender-se até que ponto a existência de um ecossistema em comum aos municípios, a Ria de Aveiro, influencia os tipos de problemas ambientais que têm sido alvo de reclamações e quais são os fatores que determinam as semelhanças e as diferenças encontradas no estudo das reclamações por municípios. A metodologia do trabalho consistiu, sumariamente, na revisão da literatura da especialidade com o objetivo de identificar o que tem sido desenvolvido nesse ramo de investigação, na caracterização da área de estudo e no desenvolvimento de uma estrutura metodológica para a identificação e a análise das reclamações e para a ponderação dos resultados com as perceções dos líderes locais através da realização de entrevistas. O enquadramento teórico do estudo salientou os principais aspetos referidos no domínio dos protestos ambientais e das reclamações do público sobre o ambiente, bem como o quadro concetual relativo à governação ambiental local. Adicionalmente, descreveram-se um breve panorama dos protestos ambientais em Portugal, dos quadros legislativos Europeu e nacional assentes no direito de acesso à informação ambiental e no princípio da participação, bem como os procedimentos locais para a apresentação de reclamações ambientais. Apresentou-se também a caracterização dos municípios abrangidos, destacando-se os principais aspetos socioeconómicos, ambientais, de infraestruturação, os instrumentos de planeamento e de gestão do território e do ambiente e o enquadramento institucional relativo à gestão ambiental nos municípios, constituindo informações relevantes para o enquadramento da área de estudo e um suporte útil para a análise e a interpretação dos resultados. Os resultados obtidos permitiram evidenciar que, no geral, há um aumento do número de reclamações ao longo dos anos. Como principais atores envolvidos, foi possível destacar os munícipes como os mais participativos, tendo se revelado também como os principais responsáveis pelos problemas ambientais observados. Para além das Câmaras Municipais, as instituições policiais surgem como as principais entidades requeridas na resolução dos problemas. As reclamações refletem sobretudo problemas localizados e que interferem com o quotidiano dos cidadãos, tais como a limpeza de terrenos, os depósitos de lixo a céu aberto ou o saneamento básico. Os problemas enunciados tendem a concentrar-se nas áreas mais urbanizadas e com maior densidade populacional. A intensidade, a tipologia e a distribuição territorial das reclamações são também determinadas pelas fronteiras administrativas. Contrariamente ao esperado, a Ria não constitui um fator mobilizador de reclamações ambientais dirigidas às Câmaras Municipais. Os diferentes mecanismos de submissão de reclamações, as políticas e prioridades de gestão ambiental local, a par da perceção ambiental das populações, influenciam esses resultados. A análise da resolução das reclamações mostrou que, embora a maior parte tenha sido equacionada pelos governos locais, uma percentagem significativa permaneceu em aberto. Apesar de ter sido detetada uma relevante concordância entre os principais problemas de ambiente referidos nos planos municipais de ambiente ou das Agendas 21 Locais existentes, as reclamações informam sobre problemas que nem sempre estão considerados naqueles instrumentos e que requerem atenção por parte dos governos locais. Adicionalmente, a ponderação entre os resultados obtidos a partir do estudo as reclamações e as perceções dos líderes locais acerca das exposições do público mostra que, apesar de uma perceção consistente sobre os problemas ambientais dominantes, há ainda um caminho relevante a percorrer para consolidar os sistemas municipais de receção, tratamento e análise das reclamações. O estudo desenvolvido ressalta o potencial que as reclamações ambientais incorporam enquanto fontes de informação sobre a tipologia de problemas ambientais persistentes, a sua localização e os principais atores envolvidos. Essa informação é crucial no momento em que se desenvolvem ou reveem instrumentos locais de gestão e de planeamento ambiental. Ao destacar o potencial das reclamações em matéria de ambiente, o trabalho propõe um conjunto de recomendações que permitem às Câmaras Municipais enriquecerem o sistema de gestão da informação proporcionada pelas reclamações, a sua utilização, e, em consequência, melhorar as relações de confiança entre o público e a Autarquia e a própria a governação ambiental local.

Microtunelação. Aplicação a um caso de obra

Um túnel é uma obra subterrânea dimensionada com o objetivo de satisfazer diversas necessidades num mundo onde o planeamento urbano e a gestão de espaços ganha cada vez mais importância. A execução de este género de obras de engenharia pode ter várias finalidades, que podem ir desde a construção/reabilitação de redes de saneamento, abastecimento de água ou gás (túneis de pequeno diâmetro) até à construção/modernização de redes pedonais, rodoviárias ou ferroviárias, galerias mineiras, tuneis para barragens, etc. (túneis de grande diâmetro). As tuneladoras são uma das ferramentas de desmonte mais utilizadas na execução de obras subterrâneas. Existem no mercado vários tipos de máquinas tuneladoras, a sua escolha e dimensionamento depende de diversos fatores que devem ser cuidadosamente analisados, nomeadamente tipo de terreno a escavar, presença ou não de água na zona de escavação, dureza e/ou abrasividade das formações a atravessar, etc. Será feita uma abordagem aos princípios de funcionamento de este tipo de equipamentos, indicando o seu campo de aplicação dentro da respetiva tecnologia de escavação onde se inserem. Finalmente será desenvolvido o caso da empreitada: “Execução da Travessia do Rio Ave, da Estação Elevatória de Vila do Conde e dos Sistemas Elevatória da Aguçadoura e da Apúlia 4 - AR 44.0.08”, onde em alternativa ao desvio provisório do Rio Ave em Vila do Conde foi projetada a execução de duas travessias no diâmetro 1200 mm, uma delas escavadas maioritariamente em terreno aluvionar brando e a outra em terreno rochoso duro e abrasivo com recurso, em ambos casos, à utilização de máquina tuneladora. Através da avaliação do desempenho do equipamento escolhido para execução de este trabalho será estudada a eficiência da utilização deste tipo de equipamento. Com o objetivo de mostrar os custos associados à execução de obras de escavação subterrânea com recurso a utilização de máquinas tuneladoras, será feita uma análise económica e comparativa relativa aos dois casos de obra apresentados.