Fit-climbing test: a field test for indoor rock climbing

Bertuzzi, R, Franchini, E, Tricoli, V, Lima-Silva, AE, Pires, FDO, Okuno, NM, and Kiss, MAPDM. Fit-climbing test: A field test for indoor rock climbing. J Strength Cond Res 26(6): 1558-1563, 2012-The aim of this study was to develop an indoor rock-climbing test on an artificial wall (Fit-climbing test). Thirteen climbers (elite group [EG] = 6; recreational group [RG] = 7) performed the following tests: (a) familiarization in the Fitclimbing test, (b) the Fit-climbing test, and (c) a retest to evaluate the Fit-climbing test's reliability. Gas exchange, blood lactate concentration, handgrip strength, and heart rate were measured during the test. Oxygen uptake during the Fit-climbing test was not different between groups (EG = 8.4 +/- 1.1 L; RG = 7.9 +/- 1.5 L, p > 0.05). The EG performance (120 +/- 7 movements) was statistically higher than the RG climbers' performance (78 +/- 13 movements) during the Fit-climbing test. Consequently, the oxygen cost per movement during the Fit-climbing test of the EG was significantly lower than that of the RG (p < 0.05). Handgrip strength was higher in the EG when compared with that in the RG in both pre-Fit- and post-Fit-climbing test (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in any other variables analyzed during the Fit-climbing test (p > 0.05). Furthermore, the performance in the Fit-climbing test presented high reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.97). Therefore, the performance during the Fit-climbing test may be an alternative to evaluate rock climbers because of its specificity and relation to oxygen cost per movement during climbing.

Sedimentological and provenance response to Cambrian closure of the Clymene ocean: The upper Alto Paraguai Group, Paraguay belt, Brazil

Final Gondwana amalgamation was marked by the closure of the Neoproterozoic Clymene ocean between the Amazonia craton and central Gondwana. The events which occurred in the last stage of this closure were recorded in the upper Alto Paraguai Group in the foreland of the Paraguay orogen. Outcrop-based fades analysis of the siliciclastic rocks of upper Alto Paraguai Group, composed of the Sepotuba and Diamantino Formations, was carried out in the Diamantino region, within the eastern part of the Barra dos Bugres basin, Mato Grosso state, central-western Brazil. The Sepotuba Formation is composed of sandy shales with planar to wave lamination interbedded with fine-grained sandstone with climbing ripple cross-lamination, planar lamination, swaley cross-stratification and tangential to sigmoidal cross-bedding with mud drapes, related to marine offshore deposits. The lower Diamantino Formation is composed of a monotonous, laterally continuous for hundreds of metres, interbedded siltstone and fine-grained sandstone succession with regular parallel lamination, climbing ripple cross-lamination and ripple-bedding interpreted as distal turbidites. The upper part of this formation consists of fine to medium-grained sandstones with sigmoidal cross-bedding, planar lamination, climbing ripple cross-lamination, symmetrical to asymmetrical and linguoid ripple marks arranged in lobate sand bodies. These fades are interbedded with thick siltstone in coarsening upward large-scale cycles related to a delta system. The Sepotuba Formation characterises the last transgressive deposits of the Paraguay basin representing the final stage of a marine incursion of the Clymene ocean. The progression of orogenesis in the hinterland resulted in the confinement of the Sepotuba sea as a foredeep sub-basin against the edge of the Amazon craton. Turbidites were generated during the deepening of the basin. The successive filling of the basin was associated with progradation of deltaic lobes from the southeast, in a wide lake or a restricted sea that formed after 541 +/- 7 Ma. Southeastern to east dominant Neoproterozoic source regions were confirmed by zircon grains that yielded ages around 600 to 540 Ma, that are interpreted to be from granites in the Paraguay orogen. This overall regressive succession recorded in the Alto Paraguai Group represents the filling up of a foredeep basin after the final amalgamation of westem Gondwana in the earliest Phanerozoic. (C) 2011 International Association for Gondwana Research. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Speleogenesis and secondary cave minerals in quartz-sandstone and quartzite environment

The main objective of this research is to improve the comprehension of the processes controlling the formation of caves and karst-like morphologies in quartz-rich lithologies (more than 90% quartz), like quartz-sandstones and metamorphic quartzites. In the scientific community the processes actually most retained to be responsible of these formations are explained in the “Arenisation Theory”. This implies a slow but pervasive dissolution of the quartz grain/mineral boundaries increasing the general porosity until the rock becomes incohesive and can be easily eroded by running waters. The loose sands produced by the weathering processes are then evacuated to the surface through processes of piping due to the infiltration of waters from the fracture network or the bedding planes. To deal with these problems we adopted a multidisciplinary approach through the exploration and the study of several cave systems in different tepuis. The first step was to build a theoretical model of the arenisation process, considering the most recent knowledge about the dissolution kinetics of quartz, the intergranular/grain boundaries diffusion processes, the primary diffusion porosity, in the simplified conditions of an open fracture crossed by a continuous flow of undersatured water. The results of the model were then compared with the world’s widest dataset (more than 150 analyses) of water geochemistry collected till now on the tepui, in superficial and cave settings. All these studies allowed verifying the importance and the effectiveness of the arenisation process that is confirmed to be the main process responsible of the primary formation of these caves and of the karst-like superficial morphologies. The numerical modelling and the field observations allowed evaluating a possible age of the cave systems around 20-30 million of years.

Hydrogeochemical controls on uranium in aquifers of the Jacobsville Sandstone

The occurrence of elevated uranium (U) in sandstone aquifers was investigated in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, focusing on aquifers of the Jacobsville Sandstone. The hydrogeochemical controls on groundwater U concentrations were characterized using a combination of water sampling and spectral gamma-ray logging of sandstone cliffs and residential water wells. 235U/238U isotope ratios were consistent with naturally occurring U. Approximately 25% of the 270 wells tested had U concentrations above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) of 30 μg/L, with elevated U generally occurring in localized clusters. Water wells were logged to determine whether groundwater U anomalies could be explained by the heterogeneous distribution of U in the sandstone. Not all wells with relative U enrichment in the sandstone produced water with U above the MCL, indicating that the effect of U enrichment in the sandstone may be modified by other hydrogeochemical factors. Well water had high redox, indicating U is in its highly soluble (VI) valence. Equilibrium modeling indicated that aqueous U is complexed with carbonates. In general, wells with elevated U concentrations had low 235U/238U activity ratios. However, in some areas U concentrations and 235U/238U activity ratios were simultaneously high, possibly indicating differences in rock-water interactions. Limited groundwater age dating suggested that residence time may also help explain variations in well water U concentrations. Low levels of U enrichment (4 to 30 ppm) in the Jacobsville sandstone may make wells in its oxidized aquifers at risk for U concentrations above the MCL. On average, U concentrations were highest in heavy mineral and clay layers and rip up conglomerates. Uranium concentrations above 4 ppm also occurred in siltstones, sandstones and conglomerates. Uranium enrichment was likely controlled by deposition processes, sorption to clays, and groundwater flow, which was controlled by permeability variations in the sandstone. Low levels of U enrichment were found at deltaic, lacustrine and alluvial fan deposits and were not isolated to specific depositional environments.

Subsurface to Surface Correlation of the Tensleep Sandstone in the West Flank of the Pryor Mountains in Carbon County, Montana

The Pennsylvanian Tensleep Sandstone is an eolian and nearshore marine/sabka quartz arenite unit with prominent outcrops along the western Pryor/Bighorn Mountain front east of Red Lodge, MT. Regionally, the formation represents one of the largest ergs in the global geologic record. High permeability makes it an important oil and gas reservoir and aquifer in south central Montana and throughout much of Wyoming. The Tensleep Sandstone’s high percentage of quartz content and grain roundness, due to its eolian origin, makes it a prospective source for natural proppant sand. Three continuous 4-inch cores were obtained during a cooperative project between Montana Tech and industry partners. Using stratigraphic sections, cores, thin sections, and x-ray fluorescence (XRF) analysis, the usefulness and economic feasibility of the Tensleep Sandstone as a minable hydraulic fracture proppant was explored. Usefulness depends on cementation, grain shape, grain size, and depth from surface of the prospective zone. Grain shape and size were determined by thin sections, sieving, and stereomicroscope analysis. Analysis of 20 disaggregated sand samples has shown that as much as 30 percent of the grain sizes fall between 30-50 mesh (medium- to finegrained sand size) and about 45 percent of the grain sizes fall between 70–140 mesh (very fine-grained sand to coarse silt), grain sizes appropriate for some hydraulic fracture operations. Core descriptions and XRF data display the distribution of lithology and cementation. Core descriptions and XRF data display the distribution of lithology and cementation. Elemental (XRF) analyses help to delineate more pure quartz sands from those with grain fractions reflecting fine-grained clastic and evaporitic inputs. The core and nearby stratigraphic sections are used to quantify the amount of overburden and the 3 amount of resource in the area. Initial results show favorable crush strength and useable grain size and shape.

Kibbey Sandstone in Montana

Much attention has recently been given, by geolog­ists, to prolific water bearing horizon and a potent­ial oil horizon, known as the Kibbey sandstone, which lies deeply buried under much of central Montana. In some local­ities the sandstone is dry, and its identification in cut­tings from deep wells has in many cases proved difficult.

The Problem of the Tensleep Sandstone

Sandstone is probably one of the most important groups of rocks in existence today. The economic importance of so insignifi­cant a thing as a mass of sand grains grows with the true reality of the situation. By increasing our knowledge of grains of sand, or particles of sandstone in all their ram­ifications, it would undoubtedly reflect upon our everyday life by increasing commercial possibilities of an undevel­oped natural resource of Montana.

Stair climbing - An insight and comparison between women with and without joint hypermobility: A descriptive study.

Generalized joint hypermobility (GJH) is a frequent entity in rheumatology with higher prevalence among women. It is associated with chronic widespread pain, joint dislocations, arthralgia, fibromyalgia and early osteoarthritis. Stair climbing is an important functional task and can induce symptoms in hypermobile persons. The aim of this study was to compare ground reaction forces (GRF) and muscle activity during stair climbing in women with and without GJH. A cross-sectional study of 67 women with normal mobility and 128 hypermobile women was performed. The hypermobile women were further divided into 56 symptomatic and 47 asymptomatic. GRFs were measured by force plates embedded in a six step staircase, as well as surface electromyography (EMG) of six leg muscles. Parameters derived from GRF and EMG were compared between groups using t-test and ANOVA. For GRF no significant differences were found. EMG showed lower activity for the quadriceps during ascent and lower activity for hamstrings and quadriceps during descent in hypermobile women. For symptomatic hypermobile women these differences were even more accentuated. The differences in EMG may point towards an altered movement pattern during stair climbing, aimed at avoiding high muscle activation. However, differences were small, since stair climbing seems to be not demanding.

Does Climbing the ‘Social Ladder’ Increase Life Satisfaction? A Comparison of the UK and Switzerland

It is a widely held belief that status and wealth affect subjective well-being (SWB). This is reflected in the efforts of many people to climb up the ‘social ladder’ and to transcend their social background. By being upwardly mobile, they hope to benefit from various rewards they believe to be associated with desirable societal positions. However, findings from a range of disciplines provide evidence that these benefits are not to be taken for granted. Thus, we decided investigate the question of how upward social mobility impacts life satisfaction, the cognitive component of SWB.

Morphological Brain Changes after Climbing to Extreme Altitudes-A Prospective Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND Findings of cerebral cortical atrophy, white matter lesions and microhemorrhages have been reported in high-altitude climbers. The aim of this study was to evaluate structural cerebral changes in a large cohort of climbers after an ascent to extreme altitudes and to correlate these findings with the severity of hypoxia and neurological signs during the climb. METHODS Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies were performed in 38 mountaineers before and after participating in a high altitude (7126m) climbing expedition. The imaging studies were assessed for occurrence of new WM hyperintensities and microhemorrhages. Changes of partial volume estimates of cerebrospinal fluid, grey matter, and white matter were evaluated by voxel-based morphometry. Arterial oxygen saturation and acute mountain sickness scores were recorded daily during the climb. RESULTS On post-expedition imaging no new white matter hyperintensities were observed. Compared to baseline testing, we observed a significant cerebrospinal fluid fraction increase (0.34% [95% CI 0.10-0.58], p = 0.006) and a white matter fraction reduction (-0.18% [95% CI -0.32--0.04], p = 0.012), whereas the grey matter fraction remained stable (0.16% [95% CI -0.46-0.13], p = 0.278). Post-expedition imaging revealed new microhemorrhages in 3 of 15 climbers reaching an altitude of over 7000m. Affected climbers had significantly lower oxygen saturation values but not higher acute mountain sickness scores than climbers without microhemorrhages. CONCLUSIONS A single sojourn to extreme altitudes is not associated with development of focal white matter hyperintensities and grey matter atrophy but leads to a decrease in brain white matter fraction. Microhemorrhages indicative of substantial blood-brain barrier disruption occur in a significant number of climbers attaining extreme altitudes.

Zeolite and silica diagenesis and sandstone petrography at DSDP Sites 57-438 and 57-439

We detected authigenic clinoptilolites in two core samples of tuffaceous, siliceous mudstone in the lower Miocene section of Hole 439. They occur as prismatic and tabular crystals as long as 0.03 mm in various voids of dissolved glass shards, radiolarian shells, calcareous foraminifers, and calcareous algae. They are high in alkalies, especially Na, and in silica varieties. There is a slight difference in composition among them. The Si : (Al+ Fe3+) ratio is highest (4.65) in radiolarian voids, intermediate (4.34) in dissolved glass voids, and lowest (4.26) in voids of calcareous organisms. This difference corresponds to the association of authigenic silica minerals revealed by the scanning electron microscope: There are abundant opal-CT lepispheres in radiolarian voids, low cristobalite and some lepispheres in dissolved glass voids, and a lack of silica minerals in the voids of calcareous organisms. Although it contains some silica from biogenic opal and alkalies from trapped sea water, clinoptilolite derives principally from dissolved glass. Although they are scattered in core samples of Quaternary through lower Miocene diatomaceous and siliceous deposits, acidic glass fragments react with interstitial water to form clinoptilolite only at a sub-bottom depth of 935 meters at approximately 25°C. Analcimes occur in sand-sized clasts of altered acidic vitric tuff in the uppermost Oligocene sandstones. The analcimic tuff clasts were probably reworked from the Upper Cretaceous terrain adjacent to Site 439. Low cristobalite and opal-CT are found in tuffaceous, siliceous mudstone of the middle and lower Miocene sections at Sites 438 and 439. Low cristobalite derives from acidic volcanic glass and opal-CT from biogenic silica. Both siliceous organic remains and acidic glass fragments occur in sediments from the Quaternary through lower Miocene sections. However, the shallowest occurrence is at 700 meters subbottom in Hole 438A, where temperature is estimated to be 21°C. The d(101) spacing of opal-CT varies from 4.09 to 4.11 Å and that of low cristobalite from 4.04 to 4.06 Å. Some opal-CT lepispheres are precipitated onto clinoptilolites in the voids of radiolarian shells at a sub-bottom depth of 950 meters in Hole 439. Sandstone interlaminated with Upper Cretaceous shale is chlorite- calcite cemented and feldspathic. Sandstones in the uppermost Oligocene section are lithic graywacke and consist of large amounts of lithic clasts grouped into older sedimentary and weakly metamorphosed rocks, younger sedimentary rocks, and acidic volcanic rocks. The acidic volcanic clasts probably originated from the volcanic high, which supplied the basal conglomerate with dacite gravels. The older sedimentary and weakly metamorphosed rocks and green rock correspond to the lithologies of the lower Mesozoic to upper Paleozoic Sorachi Group, including the chert, limestone, and slate in south-central Hokkaido. However, the angular shape and coarseness of the clasts and the abundance of carbonate rock fragments indicate a nearby provenance, which is probably the southern offshore extension of the Sorachi Group. The younger sedimentary rocks, including mudstone, carbonaceous shale, and analcime-bearing tuff, correspond to the lithologies of the Upper Cretaceous strata in south-central Hokkaido. Their clasts were reworked from the southern offshore extension of the strata. Because of the discontinuity of the zeolite zoning due to burial diagenesis, an overburden several kilometers thick must have been denuded before the deposition of sediments in the early Oligocene.