Coding for High-Density Recording on a 1-D Granular Magnetic Medium

In terabit-density magnetic recording, several bits of data can be replaced by the values of their neighbors in the storage medium. As a result, errors in the medium are dependent on each other and also on the data written. We consider a simple 1-D combinatorial model of this medium. In our model, we assume a setting where binary data is sequentially written on the medium and a bit can erroneously change to the immediately preceding value. We derive several properties of codes that correct this type of errors, focusing on bounds on their cardinality. We also define a probabilistic finite-state channel model of the storage medium, and derive lower and upper estimates of its capacity. A lower bound is derived by evaluating the symmetric capacity of the channel, i.e., the maximum transmission rate under the assumption of the uniform input distribution of the channel. An upper bound is found by showing that the original channel is a stochastic degradation of another, related channel model whose capacity we can compute explicitly.

Effect of base dissipation on the granular flow down an inclined plane

The effect of base dissipation on the granular flow down an inclined plane is examined by altering the coefficient of restitution between the moving and base particles in discrete element (DE) simulations. The interaction laws between two moving particles are kept fixed, and the coefficient of restitution (damping constant in the DE simulations) between the base and moving particles are altered to reduce dissipation, and inject energy from the base. The energy injection does result in an increase in the strain rate by up to an order of magnitude, and the temperature by up to two orders of magnitude at the base. However, the volume fraction, strain rate and temperature profiles in the bulk (above about 15 particle diameters from the base) are altered very little by the energy injection at the base. We also examine the variation of h(stop), the minimum height at the cessation of flow, with energy injection from the base. It is found that at a fixed angle of inclination, h(stop) decreases as the energy dissipation at the base decreases.

Deformation field in indentation of a granular ensemble

An experimental study has been made of the flow field in indentation of a model granular material. A granular ensemble composed of spherical sand particles with average size of 0.4 mm is indented with a flat ended punch under plane-strain conditions. The region around the indenter is imaged in situ using a high-speed charge-coupled device (CCD) imaging system. By applying a hybrid image analysis technique to image sequences of the indentation, flow parameters such as velocity, velocity gradient, and strain rate are measured at high resolution. The measurements have enabled characterization of the main features of the flow such as dead material zones, velocity jumps, localization of deformation, and regions of highly rotational flow resembling vortices. Implications for validation of theoretical analyses and applications are discussed.

Transition due to base roughness in a dense granular flow down an inclined plane

Particle simulations based on the discrete element method are used to examine the effect of base roughness on the granular flow down an inclined plane. The base is composed of a random configuration of fixed particles, and the base roughness is decreased by decreasing the ratio of diameters of the base and moving particles. A discontinuous transition from a disordered to an ordered flow state is observed when the ratio of diameters of base and moving particles is decreased below a critical value. The ordered flowing state consists of hexagonally close packed layers of particles sliding over each other. The ordered state is denser (higher volume fraction) and has a lower coordination number than the disordered state, and there are discontinuous changes in both the volume fraction and the coordination number at transition. The Bagnold law, which states that the stress is proportional to the square of the strain rate, is valid in both states. However, the Bagnold coefficients in the ordered flowing state are lower, by more than two orders of magnitude, in comparison to those of the disordered state. The critical ratio of base and moving particle diameters is independent of the angle of inclination, and varies very little when the height of the flowing layer is doubled from about 35 to about 70 particle diameters. While flow in the disordered state ceases when the angle of inclination decreases below 20 degrees, there is flow in the ordered state at lower angles of inclination upto 14 degrees. (C) 2012 American Institute of Physics. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4710543]

Anomalous Stress Profile in a Sheared Granular Column

We present measurements of the stress as a function of vertical position in a column of granular material sheared in a cylindrical Couette device. All three components of the stress tensor on the outer cylinder were measured as a function of distance from the free surface at shear rates low enough that the material was in the dense, slow flow regime. We find that the stress profile differs fundamentally from that of fluids, from the predictions of plasticity theories, and from intuitive expectation. We argue that the anomalous stress profile is due to an anisotropic fabric caused by the combined action of gravity and shear.

Rheometry of dense granular materials: the crucial effects of gravity and confining walls

We describe here the rheological response of dense, slowly deforming granular materials to shear in a cylindrical Couette cell. All components of the stress on the outer cylinder are measured pointwise as a function of the depth, for different methods of construction of the bed that presumably lead to distinct fabrics. The static stress profiles for the different construction protocols are different, but a stress profile that is independent of construction history emerges when the granular column is sheared for sufficient time, in accord with the predictions of plasticity theories. However the qualitative features of the the stress profile under shear differs radically from the predictions of plasticity theories and data reported in earlier studies. We discuss a hypothesis for the anomalous stress profiles that was proposed recently by us, and the ways in which further experiments may to conducted to verify it.

Experimental Studies on the Kinematics of Cutting in Granular Materials

Slow flow in granular materials is characterized by high solid fraction and sustained inter-particle interaction. The kinematics of trawling or cutting is encountered in processes such as locomotion of organisms in sand; trawl gear movement on a soil deposit; plow movement; movement of rovers, earth moving equipment etc. Additionally, this configuration is very akin to shallow drilling configuration encountered in the mining and petroleum industries. An experimental study has been made in order to understand velocity and deformation fields in cutting of a model rounded sand. Under nominal plane strain conditions, sand is subjected to orthogonal cutting at different tool-rake angles. High-resolution optical images of the region of cutting were obtained during the flow of the granular ensemble around the tool. Interesting kinematics underlying the formation of a chip and the evolution of the deformation field is seen in these experiments. These images are also analyzed using a PIV algorithm and detailed information of the deformation parameters such as velocity, strain rate and volume change is obtained.

Experimental Studies on the Mechanics of Cohesive Frictional Granular Media

The mechanical behaviour of cohesive-frictional granular materials is a combination of the strength pervading as intergranular friction (represented as an angle of internal friction - Phi), and the cohesion (C) between these particles. Most behavioral or constitutive models of this class of granular materials comprise of a cohesion and frictional component with no regard to the length scale i.e. from the micro structural models through the continuum models. An experimental study has been made on a model granular material, viz. angular sand with different weights of binding agents (varying degrees of cohesion) at multiple length scales to physically map this phenomenon. Cylindrical specimen of various diameters - 10, 20, 38, 100, 150 mm (and with an aspect ratio of 2) are reconstituted with 2, 4 and 8% by weight of a binding agent. The magnitude of this cohesion is analyzed using uniaxial compression tests and it is assumed to correspond to the peak in the normalized stress-strain plot. Increase in the cohesive strength of the material is seen with increasing size of the specimen. A possibility of ``entanglement'' occurring in larger specimens is proposed as a possible reason for deviation from a continuum framework.

Rheometry of granular materials in cylindrical Couette cells: Anomalous stress caused by gravity and shear

The cylindrical Couette device is commonly employed to study the rheology of fluids, but seldom used for dense granular materials. Plasticity theories used for granular flows predict a stress field that is independent of the shear rate, but otherwise similar to that in fluids. In this paper we report detailed measurements of the stress as a function of depth, and show that the stress profile differs fundamentally from that of fluids, from the predictions of plasticity theories, and from intuitive expectation. In the static state, a part of the weight of the material is transferred to the walls by a downward vertical shear stress, bringing about the well-known Janssen saturation of the stress in vertical columns. When the material is sheared, the vertical shear stress changes sign, and the magnitudes of all components of the stress rise rapidly with depth. These qualitative features are preserved over a range of the Couette gap and shear rate, for smooth and rough walls and two model granular materials. To explain the anomalous rheological response, we consider some hypotheses that seem plausibleapriori, but showthat none survive after careful analysis of the experimental observations. We argue that the anomalous stress is due to an anisotropic fabric caused by the combined actions of gravity, shear, and frictional walls, for which we present indirect evidence from our experiments. A general theoretical framework for anisotropic plasticity is then presented. The detailed mechanics of how an anisotropic fabric is brought about by the above-mentioned factors is not clear, and promises to be a challenging problem for future investigations. (C) 2013 AIP Publishing LLC.

The effect of base roughness on the development of a dense granular flow down an inclined plane

The development of the flow of a granular material down an inclined plane starting from rest is studied as a function of the base roughness. In the simulations, the particles are rough frictional spheres interacting via the Hertz contact law. The rough base is made of a random configuration of fixed spheres with diameter different from the flowing particles, and the base roughness is decreased by decreasing the diameter of the base particles. The transition from an ordered to a disordered flowing state at a critical value of the base particle diameter, first reported by Kumaran and Maheshwari Phys. Fluids 24, 053302 (2012)] for particles with the linear contact model, is observed for the Hertzian contact model as well. The flow development for the ordered and disordered flows is very different. During the development of the disordered flow for the rougher base, there is shearing throughout the height. During the development of the ordered flow for the smoother base, there is a shear layer at the bottom and a plug region with no internal shearing above. In the shear layer, the particles are layered and hexagonally ordered in the plane parallel to the base, and the velocity profile is well approximated by Bagnold law. The flow develops in two phases. In the first phase, the thickness of the shear layer and the maximum velocity increase linearly in time till the shear front reaches the top. In the second phase, after the shear layer encompasses the entire flow, there is a much slower increase in the maximum velocity until the steady state is reached. (C) 2013 AIP Publishing LLC.

Dense shallow granular flows

Simplified equations are derived for a granular flow in the `dense' limit where the volume fraction is close to that for dynamical arrest, and the `shallow' limit where the stream-wise length for flow development (L) is large compared with the cross-stream height (h). The mass and diameter of the particles are set equal to 1 in the analysis without loss of generality. In the dense limit, the equations are simplified by taking advantage of the power-law divergence of the pair distribution function chi proportional to (phi(ad) - phi)(-alpha), and a faster divergence of the derivativ rho(d chi/d rho) similar to (d chi/d phi), where rho and phi are the density and volume fraction, and phi(ad) is the volume fraction for arrested dynamics. When the height h is much larger than the conduction length, the energy equation reduces to an algebraic balance between the rates of production and dissipation of energy, and the stress is proportional to the square of the strain rate (Bagnold law). In the shallow limit, the stress reduces to a simplified Bagnold stress, where all components of the stress are proportional to (partial derivative u(x)/partial derivative y)(2), which is the cross-stream (y) derivative of the stream-wise (x) velocity. In the simplified equations for dense shallow flows, the inertial terms are neglected in the y momentum equation in the shallow limit because the are O(h/L) smaller than the divergence of the stress. The resulting model contains two equations, a mass conservation equations which reduces to a solenoidal condition on the velocity in the incompressible limit, and a stream-wise momentum equation which contains just one parameter B which is a combination of the Bagnold coefficients and their derivatives with respect to volume fraction. The leading-order dense shallow flow equations, as well as the first correction due to density variations, are analysed for two representative flows. The first is the development from a plug flow to a fully developed Bagnold profile for the flow down an inclined plane. The analysis shows that the flow development length is ((rho) over barh(3)/B) , where (rho) over bar is the mean density, and this length is numerically estimated from previous simulation results. The second example is the development of the boundary layer at the base of the flow when a plug flow (with a slip condition at the base) encounters a rough base, in the limit where the momentum boundary layer thickness is small compared with the flow height. Analytical solutions can be found only when the stream-wise velocity far from the surface varies as x(F), where x is the stream-wise distance from the start of the rough base and F is an exponent. The boundary layer thickness increases as (l(2)x)(1/3) for all values of F, where the length scale l = root 2B/(rho) over bar. The analysis reveals important differences between granular flows and the flows of Newtonian fluids. The Reynolds number (ratio of inertial and viscous terms) turns out to depend only on the layer height and Bagnold coefficients, and is independent of the flow velocity, because both the inertial terms in the conservation equations and the divergence of the stress depend on the square of the velocity/velocity gradients. The compressibility number (ratio of the variation in volume fraction and mean volume fraction) is independent of the flow velocity and layer height, and depends only on the volume fraction and Bagnold coefficients.

Flocking at a distance in active granular matter

The self-organized motion of vast numbers of creatures in a single direction is a spectacular example of emergent order. Here, we recreate this phenomenon using actuated nonliving components. We report here that millimetre-sized tapered rods, rendered motile by contact with an underlying vibrated surface and interacting through a medium of spherical beads, undergo a phase transition to a state of spontaneous alignment of velocities and orientations above a threshold bead area fraction. Guided by a detailed simulation model, we construct an analytical theory of this flocking transition, with two ingredients: a moving rod drags beads; neighbouring rods reorient in the resulting flow like a weathercock in the wind. Theory and experiment agree on the structure of our phase diagram in the plane of rod and bead concentrations and power-law spatial correlations near the phase boundary. Our discovery suggests possible new mechanisms for the collective transport of particulate or cellular matter.

Kinetic theory for sheared granular flows

Rapid granular flows are far-from-equilibrium-driven dissipative systems where the interaction between the particles dissipates energy, and so a continuous supply of energy is required to agitate the particles and facilitate the rearrangement required for the flow. This is in contrast to flows of molecular fluids, which are usually close to equilibrium, where the molecules are agitated by thermal fluctuations. Sheared granular flows form a class of flows where the energy required for agitating the particles in the flowing state is provided by the mean shear. These flows have been studied using the methods of kinetic theory of gases, where the particles are treated in a manner similar to molecules in a molecular gas, and the interactions between particles are treated as instantaneous energy-dissipating binary collisions. The validity of the assumptions underlying kinetic theory, and their applicability to the idealistic case of dilute sheared granular flows are first discussed. The successes and challenges for applying kinetic theory for realistic dense sheared granular flows are then summarised. (C) 2014 Academie des sciences. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

System reliability analysis of granular filter for protection against piping in dams

Granular filters are provided for the safety of water retaining structure for protection against piping failure. The phenomenon of piping triggers when the base soil to be protected starts migrating in the direction of seepage flow under the influence of seepage force. To protect base soil from migration, the voids in the filter media should be small enough but it should not also be too small to block smooth passage of seeping water. Fulfilling these two contradictory design requirements at the same time is a major concern for the successful performance of granular filter media. Since Terzaghi era, conventionally, particle size distribution (PSD) of granular filters is designed based on particle size distribution characteristics of the base soil to be protected. The design approach provides a range of D15f value in which the PSD of granular filter media should fall and there exist infinite possibilities. Further, safety against the two critical design requirements cannot be ensured. Although used successfully for many decades, the existing filter design guidelines are purely empirical in nature accompanied with experience and good engineering judgment. In the present study, analytical solutions for obtaining the factor of safety with respect to base soil particle migration and soil permeability consideration as proposed by the authors are first discussed. The solution takes into consideration the basic geotechnical properties of base soil and filter media as well as existing hydraulic conditions and provides a comprehensive solution to the granular filter design with ability to assess the stability in terms of factor of safety. Considering the fact that geotechnical properties are variable in nature, probabilistic analysis is further suggested to evaluate the system reliability of the filter media that may help in risk assessment and risk management for decision making.