The shoot controls zeatin riboside export from pea roots. Evidence from the branching mutant rms4

The rms4 mutant of pea (Pisum sativum L.) was used in grafting studies and cytokinin analyses of the root xylem sap to provide evidence that, at least for pea, the shoot can modify the import of cytokinins from the root. The rms4 mutation, which confers a phenotype with increased branching in the shoot, causes a very substantial decrease (down to 40-fold less) in the concentration of zeatin riboside (ZR) in the xylem sap of the roots. Results from grafts between wild-type (WT) and rms4 plants indicate that the concentration of cytokinins in the xylem sap of the roots is determined almost entirely by the genotype of the shoot. WT scions normalize the cytokinin concentration in the sap of rms4 mutant roots, whereas mutant scions cause WT roots to behave like those of self-grafted mutant plants. The mechanism whereby rms4 shoots of pea cause a down-regulation in the export of cytokinins from the roots is unknown at this time. However, our data provide evidence that the shoot transmits a signal to the roots and thereby controls processes involved in the regulation of cytokinin biosynthesis in the root.

The rms1 mutant of pea has elevated indole-3-acetic acid levels and reduced root-sap zeatin riboside content but increased branching controlled by graft-transmissible signal(s)

Rms1 is one of the series of five ramosus loci in pea (Pisum sativum L.) in which recessive mutant alleles confer increased branching at basal and aerial vegetative nodes. Shoots of the nonallelic rms1 and rms2 mutants are phenotypically similar in most respects. However, we found an up to 40-fold difference in root-sap zeatin riboside ([9R]Z) concentration between rms1 and rms2 plants. Compared with wild-type (WT) plants, the concentration of [9R]Z in rms1 root sap was very low and the concentration in rms2 root sap was slightly elevated. To our knowledge, the rms1 mutant is therefore the second ramosus mutant (rms4 being the first) to be characterized with low root-sap [9R]Z content. Like rms2, the apical bud and upper nodes of rms1 plants contain elevated indole-3-acetic acid levels compared with WT shoots. Therefore, the rms1 mutant demonstrates that high shoot auxin levels and low root-sap cytokinin levels are not necessarily correlated with increased apical dominance in pea. A graft-transmissible basis of action has been demonstrated for both mutants from reciprocal grafts between mutant and WT plants. Branching was also largely inhibited in rms1 shoots when grafted to rms2 rootstocks, but was not inhibited in rms2 shoots grafted to rms1 rootstocks. These grafting results are discussed, along with the conclusion that hormone-like signals other than auxin and cytokinin are also involved.

Hormone physiology of pea mutants prevented from flowering by mutations gi or veg1

The veg1 (vegetative) mutant in pea (Pisum sativum L.) does not flower under any circumstances and gi (gigas) mutants remain vegetative under certain conditions. gi plants are deficient in production of floral stimulus, whereas veg1 plants lack a response to floral stimulus. During long days in particular, these non-flowering mutant plants eventually enter a stable compact phase characterised by a large reduction in internode length, small leaves and growth of lateral shoots from the upper-stem (aerial) nodes. The first-order laterals in turn produce second-order laterals and so on in a reiterative pattern. The apical bud is reduced in size but continues active growth. Endogenous hormone measurements and gibberellin application studies with gi-1, gi-2 and veg1 plants indicate that a reduction in gibberellin and perhaps indole-3-acetic acid level may account, at least partially, for the compact aerial shoot phenotype. In the gi-1 mutant, the compact phenotype is rescued by transfer from a 24- to an 8-h photoperiod. We propose that in plants where flowering is prevented by a lack of floral stimulus or an inability to respond, the large reduction in photoperiod gene activity during long days may lead to a reduction in apical sink strength that is manifest in an altered hormone profile and weak apical dominance.

Mutational analysis of branching in pea. Evidence that Rms1 and Rms5 regulate the same novel signal

The fifth increased branching ramosus (rms) mutant, rms5, from pea (Pisum sativum), is described here for phenotype and grafting responses with four other rms mutants. Xylem sap zeatin riboside concentration and shoot auxin levels in rms5 plants have also been compared with rms1 and wild type (WT). Rms1 and Rms5 appear to act closely at the biochemical or cellular level to control branching, because branching was inhibited in reciprocal epicotyl grafts between rms5 or rms1 and WT plants, but not inhibited in reciprocal grafts between rms5 and rmsl seedlings. The weakly transgressive or slightly additive phenotype of the rmsl rms5 double mutant provides further evidence for this interaction. Like rms1, rms5 rootstocks have reduced xylem sap cytokinin concentrations, and rms5 shoots do not appear deficient in indole-3-acetic acid or 4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid. Rms1 and Rms5 are similar in their interaction with other Rms genes. Reciprocal grafting studies with rmsl, rms2, and rms5, together with the fact that root xylem sap cytokinin concentrations are reduced in rms1 and rms5 and elevated in rms2 plants, indicates that Rms1 and Rms5 may control a different pathway than that controlled by Rms2. Our studies indicate that Rms1 and Rms5 may regulate a novel graft-transmissible signal involved in the control of branching.

Pea rms6 mutants exhibit increased basal branching

Our studies on two branching mutants of pea (Pisum sativum L.) have identified a further Ramosus locus, Rms6, with two recessive or partially recessive mutant alleles: rms6-1 (type line S2-271) and rms6-2 (type line K586). Mutants rms6-1 and rms6-2 were derived from dwarf and tall cultivars, Solara and Torsdag, respectively. The rms6 mutants are characterized by increased branching from basal nodes. In contrast, mutants rms1 through rms5 have increased branching from both basal and aerial (upper stem) nodes. Buds at the cotyledonary node of wild-type (WT) plants remain dormant but in rms6 plants these buds were usually released from dormancy. Their growth was either subsequently inhibited, sometimes even prior to emergence above ground, or they grew into secondary stems. The mutant phenotype was strongest for rms6-1 on the dwarf background. Although rms6-2 had a weak single-mutant phenotype, the rms3-1 rms6-2 double mutant showed clear transgression and an additive branching phenotype, with a total lateral length almost 2-fold greater than rms3-1 and nearly 5-fold greater than rms6-2 . Grafting studies between WT and rms6-1 plants demonstrated the primary action of Rms6 may be confined to the shoot. Young WT and rms6-1 shoots had similar auxin levels, and decapitated plants had a similar magnitude of response to applied auxin. Abscisic acid levels were elevated 2-fold at node 2 of young rms6-1 plants. The Rms6 locus mapped to the R to Gp segment of linkage group V (chromosome 3). The rms6 mutants will be useful for basic research and also have possible agronomical value.

Pea mania: deranged behaviour in cattle grazing a pea crop (Pisum sativum var arvense)

Hypersensitivity to external stimuli, progressing in some animals to manic behaviour, occurred in a cattle herd that grazed a crop of field peas (Pisum sativum var arvense) in the pre-flowering stage. Haematological and biochemical analyses eliminated hypomagnesaemia and ketosis as diagnoses. Other than two steers euthanased due to injuries sustained during manic episodes, all affected animals survived, recovering over 3 days when moved to alternative pasture. No necropsies were conducted. No microbial pathogens or endophytes were found on or in the plants. A previously reported incident in Victoria in 1987 in cattle grazing peas appeared to be of a similar nature. Environmental factors leading to these incidents were not clearly identified.

MAX4 and RMS1 are orthologous dioxygenase-like genes that regulate shoot branching in Arabidopsis and pea

Shoot branching is inhibited by auxin transported down the stem from the shoot apex. Auxin does not accumulate in inhibited buds and so must act indirectly. We show that mutations in the MAX4 gene of Arabidopsis result in increased and auxin-resistant bud growth. Increased branching in max4 shoots is restored to wild type by grafting to wild-type rootstocks, suggesting that MAX4 is required to produce a mobile branch-inhibiting signal, acting downstream of auxin. A similar role has been proposed for the pea gene, RMS1. Accordingly, MAX4 and RMS1 were found to encode orthologous, auxin-inducible members of the polyene dioxygenase family.

Never before seen in Brazil: Luis Inácio Lula da Silva's grand diplomacy

Critical assessment of Luis Inácio Lula da Silva's diplomacy, which departed from the previous patterns of the Brazilian Foreign Service, to align itself with the political conceptions of the Workers' Party. This diplomacy has neither consolidated the position of Brazil as a regional leader, nor attained its declared goal of inserting Brazil into the United Nations Security Council, although it has reinforced Brazil's image in the international scenarios; but this was achieved much more through the personal activism of the President himself, than through normal diplomatic work.

Desfolha e posição do fruto em meloeiro cv. Don Luis, cultivado em ambiente protegido

Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito do número de folhas e da posição de fixação do fruto na planta sobre a produção de biomassa e a qualidade de frutos de meloeiro tipo Cantaloupe. O experimento foi constituído de quatro tratamentos, delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com 15 repetições. Os tratamentos foram: 1) 14 folhas/planta, com fruto fixado na posição intermediária da planta; 2) 14 folhas/planta, com fruto fixado no alto da planta; 3) 14 folhas/planta até a fixação do fruto no alto da planta, quando foram retiradas as sete folhas imediatamente abaixo do fruto; e 4) 14 folhas/planta até a fixação do fruto no alto da planta, quando foram retiradas as sete folhas na base da planta. Avaliaram-se: área foliar; área foliar específica; razão de área foliar; dias para colheita; ciclo cultural; diâmetro, comprimento, massa da matéria fresca, espessura do pericarpo, diâmetro da cavidade e teor de sólidos solúveis de fruto; e massa da matéria seca de folhas, caule, pecíolo e fruto. A condução das plantas com maior número de folhas (tratamentos 1 e 2) proporcionou maior área foliar, massa da matéria seca de folhas, massa das matérias fresca e seca de fruto, espessura do pericarpo e sólidos solúveis de fruto, comparado aos tratamentos 3 e 4. Maior área foliar/fruto proporciona frutos com maiores massa, espessura de pericarpo e teor de sólidos solúveis. A fixação do fruto na porção intermediária, comparada à fixação no topo da planta, tem como vantagem o menor ciclo cultural. O meloeiro ajusta a produção de massa dos órgãos à área foliar disponível na planta.

Incluir e aprender : o percurso de uma aluno com PEA numa turma de 1º ano

A inclusão de alunos com necessidades educativas especiais nas escolas tem feito um caminho ascendente, de melhoria. Passámos por momentos de segregação e total alheamento a uma educação inclusiva, onde todos os alunos têm um lugar na escola do ensino regular, onde se procura aceitar a diferença e identificar respostas educativas eficazes às suas necessidades de educação específicas. Para que esta inclusão se faça de forma útil e benéfica, têm de existir mudanças quer na escola, quer na sala de aula, optando-se por mudanças metodológicas e organizacionais. É a escola que se adapta aos alunos e não o contrário. Nesse mesmo sentido, o trabalho com alunos com Perturbações do Espectro do Autismo (PEA), não se projecta sempre da mesma forma. Muito embora os traços comuns característicos a esta problemática cada um apresenta as suas especificidades e só observando e entendendo a forma como cada criança aprende, se relaciona e interage, será possível realizar um trabalho eficaz e de sucesso. É neste contexto que se insere o projecto de investigação que se apresenta. Este projecto tem como objectivo apresentar um estudo de caso de um aluno portador de uma Perturbação do Espectro do Autismo. Após a caracterização sócio-educativa, identificam-se os objectivos de intervenção, princípios orientadores da prática educativa, o plano de acção e os pressupostos de avaliação. Os dados de avaliação permitem considerar que toda a intervenção, desde que devidamente planeada e avaliada, se constitui uma mais valia no desenvolvimento de competências sociais e cognitivas dos alunos com PEA. Neste estudo a intervenção procurou ir ao encontro das potencialidades e fragilidades do aluno, numa dinâmica de investigação-acção, onde o ciclo planificação-acção-reflexão permitiu um trabalho mais rigoroso e próximo das reais necessidades do aluno, beneficiando a sua evolução, sobretudo na aquisição de competências sociais.