Biological control of the fish louse in a rainbow trout fishery

Novel egg-laying boards were found to be effective in the biological control of the freshwater fish louse Argulus foliaceus in a 12.9 ha rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss fishery which had a high prevalence and intensity of infection of juvenile parasites in the early spring of 1999. Approximately 228 000d during an extensive 14 week period of egg laying which peaked in June 1999. In contrast, only 1566 clutches were harvested in 2000, when egg laying activity showed a bi-modal distribution, peaking in May and again in July and August. iaceus on rainbow trout in consecutive years was 2.9 : 1 and 2.1 : 1. Estimates of the size of the female A. foliaceus population based on egg-laying activity in 1999 exceeded that derived from measurements of prevalence and intensity of infection, whereas in 2000, this was more in balance. A minimum temperature of 10 degree C was identified for egg laying, which occurred continuously from May to October in a broadly synchronous manner.. Copyright 2002 The Fisheries Society of the British Isles

The Rainbow Trail due date card

This is a due date card for the book titled The Rainbow Trail, with stamped dates from 1940-1941.

Developmental variations in the peripheral erythrocytic system of the rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri

The peripheral circulating erythrocytic system of the rainbow trout, l3 almo gairdner , was examined in vitro in relation differences in the morphology and multiple hemoglobin system organization of adult and juvenile red cells. Cells were separated by velocity sedimentation under unit gravity, a procedure requiring red cell exposure to an incubation medium for periods of at least three hours. Therefore , this must provide an environment in which red cells remain in a condition approximaing normalcy. Previous studies having demonstrated commonly employed media to be ineffective in this regard , a medium was developed through modification of Cortl and saline. One of the principal additions to this me dium , norepinephrine, altered cell regulation of intracellular calcium, magnesium and chloride concentrations. Catecholamine involvement was also suggeste d in the synthes is of hemoglobin . The procedure was found to separtate cells primarily by density and, to a lesser extent, by shape. Characterization of red cells revealed two subpopulations to exist . The first comprised the bulk of the cell population, and were of greater l ength, width, volume and major:minor axis ratio than the smaller population; these were adult cells. The later, juvenile cells were of smaller overall size and were more spherical in shape . Juvenile cells also possessed fewer electrophore tpically distinguishable isomorphs than did adults with only eight of eleven hemoglobin component s typically found With maturation,hemoglobin complement with the development of three more bands. The total complement of the adult cell contained 7 cathodal bands and four anodal hemoglobin isomorphs. Bands acquired with maturation comprised the smallest percentage of the cells hemoglobin. each averaging less than one-percent of the total. Whether these additional bands are derived through degradation and reaggregation of existing components or are the product of pe gQy2 synthesis is not yet known.

Effect of diurnal cycling temperatures on cardiovascular- ventilatory function in statically-acclimated rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri

Four groups of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, were acclimated to 2°, 10°, and 18°e, and to a diurnal temperature cycle (100 ± 4°C). To evaluate the influence of cycling temperatures in terms of an immediate as opposed to acclimatory response various ventilatory-cardiovascular rate functions were observed for trout, either acclimated to cycling temperatures or acclimated to constant temperatures and exposed to a diurnal temperature cycle for the first time (10° ± 4°C for trout acclimated to 10°C; 18°+ 4°C for trout acclimated to l8°e). Gill resistance and the cardiac to ventilatory rate ratio were then calculated. Following a post preparatory recovery period of 36 hr, measurements were made over a 48 hour period with the first 24 hours being at constant temperature in the case of statically-acclimated fish followed by 24 hours under cyclic temperature conditions. Trout exhibited marked changes in oxygen consumption (Vo ) with temp- 2 erature both between acclimation groups, and in response to the diurnal temperature cycle. This increase in oxygen uptake appears to have been achieved by adjustment of ventilatory and, to some extent, cardiovascular activity. Trout exhibited significant changes in ventilatory rate (VR), stroke volume (Vsv), and flow (VG) in response to temperature. Marked changes in cardiac rate were also observed. These findings are discussed in relation to their importance in convective oxygen transport via water and blood at the gills and tissues. Trout also exhibited marked changes in pressure waveforms associated with the action of the resp; ratory pumps with temperature. Mean differenti a 1 pressure increased with temperature as did gill resistance and utilization. This data is discussed in relation to its importance in diffusive oxygen transport and the conditions for gas exchange at the gills. With one exception, rainbow trout were able to respond to changes in oxygen demand and availability associated with changes in temperature by means of adjustments in ventilation, and possibly pafusion, and the conditions for gas exchange at the gills. Trout acclimated to 18°C, however, and exposed to high cyclic temperatures, showed signs of the ventilatory and cardiovascular distress problems commonly associated with low circulating levels of oxygen in the blood. It appears these trout were unable to fully meet the oxygen requirements associated with c~ling temperatures above 18°C. These findings were discussed in relation to possible limitations in the cardiovascular-ventilatory response at high temperatures. The response of trout acclimated to cycling temperatures was generally similar to that for trout acclimated to constant temperatures and exposed to cycling temperatures for the first time. This result suggested that both groups of fish may have been acclimated to a similar thermal range, regardless of the acclimation regime employed. Such a phenomenon would allow trout of either acclimation group to respond equally well to the imposed temperature cycle. Rainbow trout showed no evidence of significant diurnal rhythm in any parameters observed at constant temperatures (2°, 10°, and 18° C), and under a 12/12 light-dark photoperiod regime. This was not taken to indicate an absence of circadian rhythms in these trout, but rather a deficiency in the recording methods used in the study.

Influence of temperature and photoperiod upon ionic regulation in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri

Interactions of photoperiod and temperature upon waterelectrolyte balance were examined in rainbow trout acclimated to six combinations of two photoperiods {18h light: 6h dark, o 6h light: l8h dark) and three temperatures (2, 10 and 18 C). The influence of temperature and photoperiod upon plasma, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and liver levels of sodium, potassium, magnesi.um, calcium, chloride, water content, water distribution and cellular ion concentrations was determined by a one way analysis of variance. Significant (p < 0.05 or better) temperature effects at common photoperiods were observed in 70% of the analyses performed, showing no bias toward either photoperiod. Significant photoperiod effects occured in 57% of the analyses performed at common temperatures. The influence of photoperiod was most prevalent at reduced temperatures. Potassium and magnesium appeared to be particularly thermosensitive, while sodium and calcium were the most photosensitive of the electrolytes. The ionic composition of all tissues studied were relatively thermosensitive, with liver apparently being the most sensitive. On the other hand; the ionic composition of skeletal and cardiac muscle appear to be the mos.t photosensitive of the tissues examined. Water content and distribution in skeletal muscle and liver were significantly influenced by temperature in 50% of the analyses performed showing a very strong bias toward UwinterU animals. Photoperiod effects were significant in 56% of the water parameters measured with a strong bias toward the two lower temperatures. Body weight was of significant influence in 16% of the 174 analyses performed. These data are discussed in terms of the effect of temperature upon ionregulatory mechanisms and the possible impact of photoperiod variations on endocrine systems influencing water-electrolyte metabolism.

Response rainbow trout (Salmon gairdneri) blood gas transport system to temperature, oxygen availability and photoperiod

Hematological status in rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, was examined in relation to eight combinations of three environmental fa ctors; temperature (5°, 20°C), oxygen availability «35%, >70% saturation) and photoperiod (16L:8D, 8L:16D) and evaluated by 3-factor analysis of variance. Hemog l obin and hematocrit , indicators of oxygenc arrying capacity increased significantly at the higher temperature, following exposure to hypoxia and in relation to reduced light period. Significant variations in mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration were not detected. The effects of temperature and oxygen availability were more pronounced than that of photoperiod which was generally masked. Although oxygen availability and photoperiod did not interact with temperature, the interaction of the former fac tors was significant. Elec trophoresis revealed twelve hemoglobin isomorphs. Relative concentration changes were found in re lation to the factors c onsidered with temperature>hypoxia>photoperiod. Howeve r , in terms of absolute concentration, effects were hypoxia>temperature>photoperiod. Photoperiod effects were again masked by temperature and (or) hypoxia. Red cell +2 l eve ls of [CI ] and [Mg ], critical elements in the hemoglobin-oxygen affinity regulating system, were also significantly altered. Red cell CI +2 was influenced only by temperature ; Mg by temper ature and oxygen. No photoperiod influence on either ions was observed. Under nominal 'summer' conditions, these changes point to the likelihood of increases in oxygen-c arrying c apac ity coupled with low Hb-02 affinity adjustments which would be expected to increase oxygen delivery rates to their more rapidly metabolising tissues.

The effects of static and diurnally-cycling temperature acclimations on thermal tolerances of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri

:ofiedian lethal temperatures ( LT50' s ) were determined for rainbow trout, Salmo gairdnerii, acclimated for a minimum of 21 days at 5 c onstant temperatures between 4 and 20 0 C. and 2 diel temperature fluctuations ( sinewave curves of amplitudes ± 4 and ± 7 0 C. about a mean temperature of 12 0 C. ) . Twenty-four-, 48-, and 96-hour LT50 estimates were c alculated f ollowing standard flow-through aquatic bioassay techniques and probi t transformation of mortality data. The phenomenon of delayed thermal mortality was also investigated. Shifts in upper incipient lethal temperature occurred as a result of previous thermal conditioning. It was shown that increases in constant acclimation temperature result in proportional l inear increases in thermal tolerances. The increase i n estimated 96-hour LT50's was approximately 0.13 0 c. X 1 0 C:1 between 8 and 20 0 C. The effect of acclimation to both cyclic temperature regimes was an increase in LT50 to values between the mean and maximum constant equivalent daily temperatures of the cycles. Twenty-four-, 48-, and 96-hour LT50 estimates of both cycles corresponded approximately to the LT50 values of the 16 0 C. c onstant temperature equivalent . This increase i n thermal tolerance was further demonstrated by the delayed thermal mortality experiments . Cycle amplitudes appeared to i nfluence thermal resistance through alterations in initi al mortality since mortality patterns characteristic of base temperature acclimations re-appeared after approximately 68 hours exposure to test temperatures for the 12 + 4 0 C. group, whereas mortality patterns stabilized and remained constant for a period greater than 192 hours with the larger therma l cycle ( 12 + 7 0 C. ). NO s ignificant corre lations between s pecimen weight and time-to-death was apparent. Data are discussed in relation to the establishment of thermal criteria for important commercial and sport fishes , such as the salmonids , as is the question whether previously reported values on lethal temperature s may have been under estimated.

Thermoacclimatory variations in the activities of enzymes implicated in ion transport in the rainbow trout, salmo gairdneri

Two groups of rainbow trout were acclimated to 20 , 100 , and 18 o C. Plasma sodium, potassium, and chloride levels were determined for both. One group was employed in the estimation of branchial and renal (Na+-K+)-stimulated, (HC0 3-)-stimulated, and CMg++)-dependent ATPase activities, while the other was used in the measurement of carbonic anhydrase activity in the blood, gill and kidney. Assays were conducted using two incubation temperature schemes. One provided for incubation of all preparations at a common temperature of 2S oC, a value equivalent to the upper incipient lethal level for this species. In the other procedure the preparations were incubated at the appropriate acclimation temperature of the sampled fish. Trout were able to maintain plasma sodium and chloride levels essentially constant over the temperature range employed. The different incubation temperature protocols produced different levels of activity, and, in some cases, contrary trends with respect to acclimation temperature. This information was discussed in relation to previous work on gill and kidney. The standing-gradient flow hypothesis was discussed with reference to the structure of the chloride cell, known thermallyinduced changes in ion uptake, and the enzyme activities obtained in this study. Modifications of the model of gill lon uptake suggested by Maetz (1971) were proposed; high and low temperature models resulting. In short, ion transport at the gill at low temperatures appears to involve sodium and chloride 2 uptake by heteroionic exchange mechanisms working in association w.lth ca.rbonlc anhydrase. G.l ll ( Na + -K + ) -ATPase and erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase seem to provide the supplemental uptake required at higher temperatures. It appears that the kidney is prominent in ion transport at low temperatures while the gill is more important at high temperatures. 3 Linear regression analyses involving weight, plasma ion levels, and enzyme activities indicated several trends, the most significant being the interrelationship observed between plasma sodium and chloride. This, and other data obtained in the study was considered in light of the theory that a link exists between plasma sodium and chloride regulatory mechanisms.

Thermoaclimatory variations in the microenvironment of hemoglobin in the rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri and the carp, Cyprinus carpio

Several inorganic substances (e.g., C£ , Mg , Ca , H ) are potent negative modulators of hemoglobin-oxygen affinity. To evaluate the possibility that potentially adaptive changes in the red cell ionic environment of hemoglobin may take place during acclimation of fishes to increased environmental temperature, hematological status (hemoglobin, hematocrit, red cell numbers, mean erythrocytic volume and hemoglobin content), plasma + + 2+ 2+ and packed red cell electrolyte levels (Na , K , Ca , Mg , C£ ) were evaluated in summer and winter populations of the stenothermal rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, following acclimation to 2°, 10°, 18°C, and in a spring population of eurythermal carp, Cyprinus carpio, held at 2°, 16° and 30°C. From these data cell ion concentrations and ion:hemoglobin ratios were estimated. In view of the role of red cell carbonic anhydrase in the reductions of blood C02 tensions and the recruitment of Na and C£~ lost by fishes, a preliminary investigation of thermoacclimatory changes in the activity of this system in rainbow trout erythrocytes was conducted. Few changes in hematological status were encountered following acclimation. There was, however, some evidence of weight-specific differential hematological response in carp. This lead to markedly greater increases in hemoglobin, hematocrit and red cell numbers in smaller rather than in larger specimens at higher temperatures; variations which were 2+ well correlated with changes in plasma Ca . Plasma composition in summer trout was not altered by acclimation. In winter trout plasma Na and K increased at higher temperatures. Carp were characterized by increases in plasma calcium, and reductions in sodium and magnesium under these conditions. Several significant seasonal differences in plasma ion levels were observed in the trout. (n) In trout, only erythrocytic K and K :Hb were altered by acclimation, rising at higher temperatures. In carp Na , Na :Hb, C£~ and C£~:Hb in- 2+ 2+ creased with temperature, while Mg and Mg :Hb declined. Changes in overall ionic composition in carp red cells were consistent with increases in H content. In both species significant reciprocal variations in C£~ 2+ - + and Mg were found. In mammalian systems increases in C£ and H reduce hemoglobin-oxygen affinity by interaction with hemoglobin. Reduction in 2+ 2+ Mg maximizes organophosphate modulator availability by decreasing ATP»Mg complex formation. Thus, the changes observed may be of adaptive value in reducing hemoglobin-oxygen affinity, and facilitating oxygen release to cells at higher temperatures. Trout appear to maintain a high chloridelow magnesium state over the entire thermal tolerance zone. Carp, however, achieved this state only at higher temperatures. In both species mean erythrocytic volume was decreased at higher temperatures and this may facilitate branchial oxygen loading. Since mean erythrocytic volume was inversely related to red cell ion content, it is hypothesized that reductions in cell volume are achieved by export of some unidentified solute or solutes. Variations in the carbonic anhydrase activity that could be attributed to the thermoacclimatory process were quite modest. On the other hand, assays performed at the temperature of acclimation showed a large temperature effect where under in vivo conditions of temperature fish acclimated to higher temperatures might be expected to have higher activities. Furthermore, since hematocrit increased with temperature in these fish, while carbonic anhydrase is present only in the erythrocyte, the whole blood levels of this enzyme are expected to increase and further augment the temperature effect. This, in turn, could aid in the reduction of C02 (111) tension and increase the production of H and HC0~~ used in the active uptake of Na and C£ at higher temperatures.

Water and electrolyte content and distribution in tissues of thermally-acclimated rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri

The primary objective of this investigation was that of providing a comprehensive tissue-by-tissue assessment of water-electrolyte status in thermally-acclimated rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. To this end levels of water and the major ions, sodium, chloride and potassium were evaluated in the plasma, at three skeletal muscle sites, and in cardiac muscle, liver, spleen, gut and brain of animals acclimated to 2°, 10° and 18°C. The occurrence of possible seasonal variations in water-electrolyte balance was evaluated by sampling sununer and late fall-early winter populations of trout. On the basis of values for water and electrolyte content, estimates of extracellular and cellular phase volumes, cellular electrolyte concentrations and Nernst equilibrium potentials were made. Since accurate assessment of the extracellular phase volume is critical in the estimation of cellular electrolyte concentrations and parameters based on assumed cellular ion levels, [14 C]-polyethylene glycol-4000, which is assumed to be confined to the extracellular space, was employed to provide comparisons with various ion-defined spaces (H20~~s, H20~~/K and H20~~s). Subsequently, the ion-defined space yielding the most realistic estimate of extracellular phase volume for each tissue was used in cellular electrolyte calculations. Water and electrolyte content and distribution varied with temperature. Tissues, such as liver, spleen and brain appeared to be the most thermosensitive, whereas skeletal and cardiac muscle and gut tissue were less influenced. 'Summer' series trout appeared to be more capable of maintaining their water- electrolyte balance than the ~fall-winter' series animals. i The data are discussed in terms of their possible effect on maintenance of appropriate cellular metabolic and electrophysiological functions.

Rainbow over Memorial Hall, Chapman College, Orange, California

Rainbow over Memorial Hall, Chapman College, Orange, California, 1986.

Studies on the systematics, biology and fishery of rainbow sardines, dussumieria spp., from Indian waters

Rainbow sardines of the genus belonging to the family Dueenaieriidae. are small pelagic fishes forming a fairly good, though not abundant. seasonal fishery all along the coasts of India inhabiting the coastal waters. There have been some earlier reports on such individual aspects as their systematic, distribution, abundance. Ostecology and a few biological factors but no attempt has been made towards a comprehensive study on this group. Two species of rainbow sardines are known to occur in the Indian seas and while a knowledge about their biology would be useful from the fishery point of view. it was also thought a study of their systematic position, especially regarding the identity or the two species which had raised doubts among earlier workers would lead to a better understanding or the group as a whole. This thesis is mainly based on studies during the period from April 1969 to march 1971 with a continued investigation of fishhery aspects till December 1975. from the Gulf of manar: and the Palk Bay around mandapam area. on the south-east coast of India. Thus the work deals with the systemtics, biology and fishery of rainbow sardines of Indian seas.