Saponins from Quillaja saponaria Molina: Isolation, Characterization and Ability to Form Immuno Stimulatory Complexes (ISCOMs)

ISCOMs have received much attention as vaccine adjuvants due to their immunostimulatory effects. They are colloidal particles typically comprised of phospholipids, cholesterol and Quil A, a crude mixture of saponins extracted from the bark of Quillaja saponaria Molina. We have previously shown that ISCOMs can be prepared by ether injection wherein an ether solution of phospholipids and cholesterol in a mass ratio of 5:2 is injected into a solution of Quil A at a mass ratio of 7 lipids: 3 Quil A. The aim of this study was firstly to isolate and characterise discrete fractions of Quil A and secondly to investigate which of these fractions were able to form ISCOMs by the method of ether injection. Six fractions of Quil A were isolated by semi-preparative reverse phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and characterised by analytical HPLC, liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and the qualitative Liebermann- Burchard and Molisch tests for triterpenoids and carbohydrates respectively. ISCOMs were subsequently prepared from the isolated fractions by the method of ether injection and the resulting preparations characterized by photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS) and negative stain transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The molecular weights of the major compounds in the fractions ranged from ∼1200 to ∼2300 Da; all fractions tested positive for triterpenoids and saccharides and four of the fractions were identified as QS-7, QS-17, QS-18 and QS-21 by analysis (LC-MS and analytical HPLC). Injection of ether solutions of lipids into aqueous solutions of QS-17, QS-18 or QS-21 all resulted in homogeneous ISCOM dispersions. The combination of lipids and QS-7 by ether injection produced lamellae and liposomes as the prominent structures and a minor amount of ISCOMs. The remaining two hydrophilic, low molecular weight fractions of Quil A did not produce ISCOMs, instead liposomes and helical structures predominated in the samples.

Hyperfine structure and isotopic shift of the n^2 P_J levels (n = 7-10) of ^203,205 TI measured by Doppler-free two-photon spectroscopy

Using Doppler-free two-photon absorption spectroscopy, we have measured hyperfine splitting constants as well as isotopic level shifts of the 6s^2 np ^2 P_l/2,3/2 states in (n=7-10) in ^203 TI and ^205 TI. Calculations for hyperfine constants and electron density at the nucleus have been performed by the Dirac-Fock method. The experimental results are compared with these calculations as well as with the predictions of the semiempirical theory.

Simultaneous two-photon excitation of distinct labels for dual-color fluorescence crosscorrelation analysis

Confocal fluorescence correlation spectroscopy as a time-averaging fluctuation analysis combining maximum sensitivity with high statistical confidence has proved to be a very versatile and powerful tool for detection and temporal investigation of biomolecules at ultralow concentrations on surfaces, in solutions, and in living cells. To probe the interaction of different molecular species for a detailed understanding of biologically relevant mechanisms, crosscorrelation studies on dual or multiple fluorophore assays with spectrally distinct excitation and emission are particularly promising. Despite the considerable improvement of detection specificity provided by fluorescence crosscorrelation analysis, few applications have so far been reported, presumably because of the practical challenges of properly aligning and controlling the stability of the experimental setup. In this work, we demonstrate that two-photon excitation combined with dual-color fluorescence correlation spectroscopy can be the key to simplifying simultaneous investigations of multiple fluorescent species significantly on a single-molecule scale. Two-photon excitation allows accession of common fluorophores of largely distinct emission by the same excitation wavelength, because differences in selection rules and vibronic coupling can induce considerable shifts between the one-photon and two-photon excitation spectra. The concept of dual-color two-photon fluorescence crosscorrelation analysis is introduced and experimentally demonstrated with an established assay probing the selective cleavage of dual-labeled DNA substrates by restriction endonuclease EcoRI.

Quantifying intracellular protein binding thermodynamics during mechanotransduction based on FRET spectroscopy.

Mechanical force modulates myriad cellular functions including migration, alignment, proliferation, and gene transcription. Mechanotransduction, the transmission of mechanical forces and its translation into biochemical signals, may be mediated by force induced protein conformation changes, subsequently modulating protein signaling. For the paxillin and focal adhesion kinase interaction, we demonstrate that force-induced changes in protein complex conformation, dissociation constant, and binding Gibbs free energy can be quantified by lifetime-resolved fluorescence energy transfer microscopy combined with intensity imaging calibrated by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Comparison with in vitro data shows that this interaction is allosteric in vivo. Further, spatially resolved imaging and inhibitor assays show that this protein interaction and its mechano-sensitivity are equal in the cytosol and in the focal adhesions complexes indicating that the mechano-sensitivity of this interaction must be mediated by soluble factors but not based on protein tyrosine phosphorylation.

Zur Kooperativität des Vogelspinnen-Hämocyanins

Zusammenfassung Kooperativität bei Atmungsproteinen bedeutet eine Änderung der O2-Affinität während der Beladung mit O2 und läßt sich durch die Wechselbeziehung zwischen O2-Beladung und Konformation beschreiben. In dieser Arbeit wurde das 24-mere Hämocyanin der Vogelspinne Eurypelma californicum bzgl. Beladung und Konformationen sowohl auf der Ensemble- wie auch auf der Einzel-Molekül-Ebene charakterisiert. EnsembleDie Bindung von O2 an Hämocyanine ist mit einer drastischen Abnahme der Fluoreszenz-Quantenausbeute verbunden. Durch Vergleich von theoretisch und experimentell bestimmten Quantenausbeuten konnte gezeigt werden, daß die Löschung auf Förster-Transfer zurückzuführen ist, und daß kein Einfluß der Oligomerisierung, Protein-Konformation, Beweglichkeit oder Tierart besteht. Die Konformation von Hämocyaninen konnte mit Crosslinkern im oxy- und deoxy-Zustand fixiert werden. Die Charakterisierung der Produkte führte zu einer neuen Vorstellung, wie unterschiedliche Affinitäten realisiert sein können. Hierbei kommt der Dynamik der Protein-Matrix eine entscheidende Rolle zu. Einzel-MoleküleMittels Zwei-Photonen-Anregung konnten erstmalig einzelne Proteine über ihre intrinsische Tryptophan-Fluoreszenz nachgewiesen werden. Zum einen gelang es, Modellsysteme mit nur 340 Trp abzubilden, andererseits konnte die Diffusion einzelner Hämocyanine (148 Trp) mit Hilfe der Fluoreszenz-Korrelationsspektroskopie nachgewiesen werden.Einzelne Hämocyanine konnten durch Adsorption und mildes Eintrocknen an verschiedenen Oberflächen immobilisiert werden. Mittels Atomarer Kraft-Mikroskopie (AFM) ließen sich individuelle Hämocyanine abgebilden, wobei Details der Quarärstruktur aufgelöst werden konnten.

Nuclear charge radius of the halo nucleus lithium-11

Nuclear charge radii of short-lived isotopes can be probed in a nuclear-model independent way via isotope shift measurements. For this purpose a novel technique was developed at GSI, Darmstadt. It combines two-photon laser spectroscopy in the 2s-3s electronic transition of lithium, resonance ionization, and detection via quadrupole mass spectrometry. In this way an accuracy of 5e-5 which is necessary for the extraction of nuclear charge radii, and an overall detection efficiency of 1e-4 is reached. This allowed an isotope shift measurement of Li-11 for the first time at the TRIUMF facility in Vancouver. Additionally, uncertainties in the isotope shift for all other lithium isotopes were reduced by about a factor of four compared to previous measurements at GSI. Results were combined with recent theoretical mass shift calculations in three-electron systems and root-mean-square nuclear charge radii of all lithium isotopes, particulary of the two-neutron halo nucleus Li-11, were determined. Obtained charge radii decrease continuously from Li-6 to Li-9, while a strong increase between Li-9 and Li-11 is observed. This is compared to predictions of various nuclear models and it is found that a multicluster model gives the best overall agreement. Within this model, the increase in charge radius between Li-9 and Li-11is to a large extend caused by intrinsic excitation of the Li-9-like core while the neutron-halo correlation contributes only to a small extend.

Fluctuation spectroscopy of single plasmonic nanostructures

Plasmonic nanoparticles are great candidates for sensing applications with optical read-out. Plasmon sensing is based on the interaction of the nanoparticle with electromagnetic waves where the particle scatters light at its resonance wavelength. This wavelength depends on several intrinsic factors like material, shape and size of the nanoparticle as well as extrinsic factors like the refractive index of the surrounding medium. The latter allows the nanoparticle to be used as a sensor; changes in the proximate environment can be directly monitored by the wavelength of the emitted light. Due to their minuscule size and high sensitivity this allows individual nanoparticles to report on changes in particle coverage.rnrnTo use this single particle plasmon sensor for future sensing applications it has to meet the demand for detection of incidents on the single molecule level, such as single molecule sensing or even the detection of conformational changes of a single molecule. Therefore, time resolution and sensitivity have to be enhanced as today’s measurement methods for signal read-out are too slow and not sensitive enough to resolve these processes. This thesis presents a new experimental setup, the 'Plasmon Fluctuation Setup', that leads to tremendous improvements in time resolution and sensitivity. This is achieved by implementation of a stronger light source and a more sensitive detector. The new setup has a time resolution in the microsecond regime, an advancement of 4-6 orders of magnitude to previous setups. Its resonance wavelength stability of 0.03 nm, measured with an exposure time of 10 ms, is an improvement of a factor of 20 even though the exposure time is 3000 times shorter than in previous reports. Thus, previously unresolvable wavelength changes of the plasmon sensor induced by minor local environmental alteration can be monitored with extremely high temporal resolution.rnrnUsing the 'Plasmon Fluctuation Setup', I can resolve adsorption events of single unlabeled proteins on an individual nanorod. Additionally, I monitored the dynamic evolution of a single protein binding event on a millisecond time scale. This feasibility is of high interest as the role of certain domains in the protein can be probed by a study of modified analytes without the need for labels possibly introducing conformational or characteristic changes to the target. The technique also resolves equilibrium fluctuations in the coverage, opening a window into observing Brownian dynamics of unlabeled macromolecules. rnrnA further topic addressed in this thesis is the usability of the nanoruler, two nanospheres connected with a spacer molecule, as a stiffness sensor for the interparticle linker under strong illumination. Here, I discover a light induced collapse of the nanoruler. Furthermore, I exploit the sensing volume of a fixed nanorod to study unlabeled analytes diffusing around the nanorod at concentrations that are too high for fluorescence correlation spectroscopy but realistic for biological systems. Additionally, local pH sensing with nanoparticles is achieved.

Fluorescence correlation analysis of probe diffusion simplifies quantitative pathogen detection by PCR

A sensitive, labor-saving, and easily automatable nonradioactive procedure named APEX-FCS (amplified probe extension detected by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy) has been established to detect specific in vitro amplification of pathogen genomic sequences. As an example, Mycobacterium tuberculosis genomic DNA was subjected to PCR amplification with the Stoffel fragment of Thermus aquaticus DNA polymerase in the presence of nanomolar concentrations of a rhodamine-labeled probe (third primer), binding to the target in between the micromolar amplification primers. The probe becomes extended only when specific amplification occurs. Its low concentration avoids false-positives due to unspecific hybridization under PCR conditions. With increasing portion of extended probe molecules, the probe’s average translational diffusion properties gradually change over the course of the reaction, reflecting amplification kinetics. Following PCR, this change from a stage of high to a stage of low mobility can directly be monitored during a 30-s measurement using a fluorescence correlation spectroscopy device. Quantitation down to 10 target molecules in a background of 2.5 μg unspecific DNA without post-PCR probe manipulations could be achieved with different primer/probe combinations. The assay holds the promise to concurrently perform amplification, probe hybridization, and specific detection without opening the reaction chamber, if sealable foils are used.

Conformational transitions monitored for single molecules in solution.

Phenomena that can be observed for a large number of molecules may not be understood if it is not possible to observe the events on the single-molecule level. We measured the fluorescence lifetimes of individual tetramethylrhodamine molecules, linked to an 18-mer deoxyribonucleotide sequence specific for M13 DNA, by time-resolved, single-photon counting in a confocal fluorescence microscope during Brownian motion in solution. When many molecules were observed, a biexponential fluorescence decay was observed with equal amplitudes. However, on the single-molecule level, the fraction of one of the amplitudes spanned from 0 to unity for a collection of single-molecule detections. Further analysis by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy made on many molecules revealed a process that obeys a stretched exponential relaxation law. These facts, combined with previous evidence of the quenching effect of guanosine on rhodamines, indicate that the tetramethylrhodamine molecule senses conformational transitions as it associates and dissociates to a guanosine-rich area. Thus, our results reveal conformational transitions in a single molecule in solution under conditions that are relevant for biological processes.

Cell-wall polysaccharides from Australian red algae of the family Solieriaceae (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta): Novel, highly pyruvated carrageenans from the genus Callophycus

Cell-wall polysaccharides from six species of red algae of the genus Callophycus were mainly galactans comprised predominantly of galactose (Gal) and 3,6-anhydrogalactose (AnGal), and were rich in pyruvate and sulfate. The Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra of the polysaccharides superficially resembled that of alpha-carrageenan (composed of the repeating disaccharide carrabiose 2-sulfate), with major bands of absorption indicative of if-linked AnGal, axial 2-sulfate on 4-linked AnGal, and unsulfated, 3-linked Gal. The FTIR spectra of solutions of Callophycus polysaccharides in D2O-phosphate buffer displayed absorption, corresponding to the carboxylate anion of the pyruvate acetal substituent. Methylation analysis showed that 3,4,6-linked Galp (interpreted as 4,6-pyruvated, 3-linked Galp) and 2,4-linked AnGalp (interpreted as 4-linked AnGalp 2-sulfate) were the dominant links, together with significant quantities of 3-linked Galp. Proton-decoupled C-13 nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy showed the polysaccharides to be composed predominantly of pyruvated carrageenans. The C-13 NMR spectra were completely assigned by a J-modulated spin-echo pulse sequence and 2D experiments employing gradient Heteronuclear Multiple Bond Correlation (HMBC), C-13/H-1 Heteronuclear Multiple Quantum Coherence (HMQC), and HMQC Total Correlation Spectroscopy (HMQC-TOCSY). The Callophycus galactans thus consist predominantly of the novel repeating disaccharide 4',6'-O-(1-carboxyethylidene)carrabiose 2-sulfate and minor amounts of the alpha-carrageenan repeating unit (carrabiose 2-sulfate), and other structural variations. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Quantum beats in spontaneous emission from two atoms in a detuned squeezed vacuum

The time evolution of the populations of the collective states of a two-atom system in a squeezed vacuum can exhibit quantum beats. We show that the effect appears only when the carrier frequency of the squeezed field is detuned from the atomic resonance. Moreover, we find that the quantum beats are not present for the case in which the two-photon correlation strength is the maximum possible for a field with a classical analog. We also show that the population inversion between the excited collective states, found for the resonant squeezed vacuum, is sensitive to the detuning and the two-photon correlations. For large detunings or a field with a classical analog there is no inversion between the collective states. Observation of the quantum beats or the population inversion would confirm the essentially quantum-mechanical nature of the squeezed vacuum. (C) 1997 Optical Society of America.

Identification of a digalactosyl ononitol from seeds of adzuki bean (Vigna angularis)

A digalactosyl ononitol was isolated from seeds of adzuki bean (Vigna angularis [Willd.] Ohwi et Ohasi). Analysis of hydrolysis products and NMR spectroscopy established its structure as O-alpha-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-->6)-O-alpha-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-->3)-O-methyl- D-myo-inositol. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Synthesis, structure, and optical properties of an alternating calix[4]arene-based meta-linked phenylene ethynylene copolymer

Novel alternating copolymers comprising biscalix[4]arene-p-phenylene ethynylene and m-phenylene ethynylene units (CALIX-m-PPE) were synthesized using the Sonogashira-Hagihara cross-coupling polymerization. Good isolated yields (60-80%) were achieved for the polymers that show M-n ranging from 1.4 x 10(4) to 5.1 x 10(4) gmol(-1) (gel permeation chromatography analysis), depending on specific polymerization conditions. The structural analysis of CALIX-m-PPE was performed by H-1, C-13, C-13-H-1 heteronuclear single quantum correlation (HSQC), C-13-H-1 heteronuclear multiple bond correlation (HMBC), correlation spectroscopy (COSY), and nuclear overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY) in addition to Fourier transform-Infrared spectroscopy and microanalysis allowing its full characterization. Depending on the reaction setup, variable amounts (16-45%) of diyne units were found in polymers although their photophysical properties are essentially the same. It is demonstrated that CALIX-m-PPE does not form ground-or excited-state interchain interactions owing to the highly crowded environment of the main-chain imparted by both calix[4]arene side units which behave as insulators inhibiting main-chain pi-pi staking. It was also found that the luminescent properties of CALIX-m-PPE are markedly different from those of an all-p-linked phenylene ethynylene copolymer (CALIX-p-PPE) previously reported. The unexpected appearance of a low-energy emission band at 426 nm, in addition to the locally excited-state emission (365 nm), together with a quite low fluorescence quantum yield (Phi = 0.02) and a double-exponential decay dynamics led to the formulation of an intramolecular exciplex as the new emissive species.

Saponins from Swartzia langsdorffii: biological activities

The presence of saponins and the molluscicidal activity of the roots, leaves, seeds and fruits of Swartzia langsdorffii Raddi (Leguminosae) against Biomphalaria glabrata adults and eggs were investigated. The roots, seeds and fruits were macerated in 95% ethanol. These extracts exerted a significant molluscicidal activity against B. glabrata, up to a dilution of 100 mg/l. Four mixtures (A2, B2, C and D) of triterpenoid oleanane type saponins were chromatographically isolated from the seed and fruit extracts. Two known saponins (1 and 2) were identified as beta-D-glucopyranosyl-[alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1->3)- beta-D-glucuronopyranosyl-(1->3)]-3beta-hydroxyolean-12-ene-28 -oate, and beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(1->3)-beta-D-glucuronopyranosyl-(1 ->3)]-3beta-hydroxyolean-12-ene-28-oate, respectively. These two saponins were present in all the mixtures, together with other triterpenoid oleane type saponins, which were shown to be less polar, by reversed-phase HPLC. The saponin identifications were based on spectral evidence, including ¹H-¹H two-dimensional correlation spectroscopy, nuclear Overhauser and exchange spectroscopy, heteronuclear multiple quantum coherence, and heteronuclear multiple-bond connectivity experiments. The toxicity of S. langsdorffii saponins to non-target organisms was prescreened by the brine shrimp lethality test.

Fluorescence imaging reveals the nuclear behavior of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor/retinoid X receptor heterodimers in the absence and presence of ligand.

In a global approach combining fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET), we address the behavior in living cells of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), a family of nuclear receptors involved in lipid and glucose metabolism, inflammation control, and wound healing. We first demonstrate that unlike several other nuclear receptors, PPARs do not form speckles upon ligand activation. The subnuclear structures that may be observed under some experimental conditions result from overexpression of the protein and our immunolabeling experiments suggest that these structures are subjected to degradation by the proteasome. Interestingly and in contrast to a general assumption, PPARs readily heterodimerize with retinoid X receptor (RXR) in the absence of ligand in living cells. PPAR diffusion coefficients indicate that all the receptors are engaged in complexes of very high molecular masses and/or interact with relatively immobile nuclear components. PPARs are not immobilized by ligand binding. However, they exhibit a ligand-induced reduction of mobility, probably due to enhanced interactions with cofactors and/or chromatin. Our study draws attention to the limitations and pitfalls of fluorescent chimera imaging and demonstrates the usefulness of the combination of FCS, FRAP, and FRET to assess the behavior of nuclear receptors and their mode of action in living cells.