Effects of the density, aviary type, breed, and age on the behaviors of laying hens kept in cages

An experiment was carried out in order to investigate the behaviors of laying hens due to the environmental factors of: density inside of the cage, aviary type, breed, and age. The experiment was configured as a factorial 4x2x2x2 study, with treatments being four different ages, two different breeds, two different cage densities, and two different aviaries. The birds' behaviors were recorded using video cameras installed in the cages, using samples of 15 minutes recorded from 12 PM to 4 PM. The observed behaviors, frequency and duration of behaviors (measured in seconds) were identified and noted related to each bird. The study was initiated in March 2007, during four non-consecutive weeks. The observed behaviors were: opening wings, stretching, threatening, ruffling feathers, drinking water, aggressive pecking, eating, running, lying down, stretching head out of the cage, preening, mounting, prostrating, and doing nothing (inactivity). Due to the non-normality of the data recorded, the Kruskal-Wallis statistical test of the MINITAB Statistical Software® was used to compare the medians of the variables. For breed factor, only the durations of the eating presented significant differences (p-value< 0.05). For cage density, there was a significant median difference (p-value< 0.05) for almost all behaviors observed. The average length of time of behaviors was higher for the lowest cage density. However, the frequency of behaviors was lmerfor the lowest cage density. The frequency of the behaviors to preen feathers, to lie down, to drink water and to stretch the head were higher in the aviary, where the groups of birds were smaller. The observed behaviors were particularly affected by experimental factors cage density, and aviary type, which directly affects the available space for each bird.

Some aspects of chicken behavior and welfare

Brazil is the world leader in broiler production and export. It achieved this position mainly to its excellent supply chain structure and climate, which favor poultry and grain production throughout its territory. Although Brazilian egg production is not as important as broiler production, this segment presents great potential of increasing its share in the global market. However, as elsewhere in the world, Brazilian poultry production faces the challenge to balance two elements within its supply chain: cruelty and productivity. The consumers of the European Union (EU) are very concerned with animal welfare issues. In order to increase its share in the European market, and eventually in the world market, Brazilian poultry producers must understand the effects of production systems on poultry welfare, and try to develop systems that are suited for its climate and other production conditions. There is a consensus that the natural behaviors performed by poultry in intensive production systems allow better welfare. This objective of this review is to present scientific research studies that relate different behaviors to chicken welfare. Poultry behavior is a reflex of their welfare status at a particular moment, and it is related to internal (physiological) and external (environmental) factors. Several natural behaviors that favor welfare, as well as undesirable behaviors, may be stimulated by environmental enrichment. The correct interpretation of the behaviors expressed by poultry, including their frequency, duration, and sequence, may be used to estimate their welfare. Animal production is an import sector of Brazilian economy. It significantly contributes to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), in terms of products destined both to domestic consumption and exports. New technologies applied to products and management practices have been developed for field application, aiming at improving producers' productivity and profitability. In order to comply with the European Union's (EU) guidelines for animal protein production, Brazilian poultry production needs to undergo a process of adaptation. In May, 2007, the EU Commission established its new guidelines for animal welfare in poultry production, pressured by consumer demand. In the EU, there is a growing concern among consumers as to how poultry are reared and slaughtered. European consumers are in the fore front of the demand of high quality products produced with under better welfare conditions, and have spread this concern throughout the world. Beaumont et al. (2010) mentioned that European consumers frequently perceive that standard commercial poultry production has poor animal welfare practices. According to Nääs et al. (2008), Brazilian poultry production today needs to find a balance between cruelty and productivity. In fact, ensuring animal welfare may provide better financial results, as it increases the producer's profit margins and allows maintaining Brazilian chicken export quotas to the EU. França (2008) noted that biological studies that define ethical limits and guidelines for poultry production foster the development of new production practices that may ensure good product quality and productivity without putting bird welfare at risk. Gonyou (1994) states that, when animal welfare started to be studied, the only behavioral factors considered were those related to feeding and reproduction. These first studies used as indicators of animal welfare reduced life expectancy, impaired growth, impaired reproduction, body damage, disease, immunosuppression, adrenal activity, behavior anomalies, and self-narcotization (Broom, 1991). However, current studies evaluate additional indicators, such as natural behaviors, behavioral needs, preferences, behavioral problems, emotional state, cognitive abilities, etc. In the field of ethology, the expression of natural behavior is a frequently used tool used to estimate the welfare of poultry destined to human consumption. According to Bracke & Hopster (2006), natural behavior can be defined as the behavior the animal normaly presents when exposed to conditions similar to its natural habitat. Natural behaviors are pleasurable and promote biological functions that are meaningful to the animal's welfare. The definition of natural behavior, though, does not include the bird's behavior when sick, in flight or during aggression, since these are not considered pleasurable situations. Considering layer behavioral needs in the design of housing facilities optimize their welfare. Mishra et al. (2005) verified that ISA Brown layers spent, during 24 hours, around 97% of the time in the nest, feeding, walking, resting, or dust bathing, and that 57% of these behaviors did not depend on environmental enrichment. It was also observed that hens had preferred behavioral sequences, which included foraging and comfort behaviors, such as wing-stretching and preening. The present review aims at discussing, albeit not exhaustively, scientific research studies on the behavior of Gallusgallus domesticus and its relationship to welfare. The following behaviors are reviewed: feather pecking, scratching, dust bathing, nesting, locomotion activities, and aggressive behaviors. These behaviors are the most frequently observed in commercial broiler, broiler breeder, and layer farming, and therefore, monitoring their incidence may contribute to measure poultry welfare.

The presence of black vultures at the calving sites and its effects on cows' and calves' behaviour immediately following parturition

Black vultures (Coragyps atratus) are often present near calving sites, and under this situation they may play a positive role by removing animal carcasses and afterbirth or a negative role by attacking neonate calves or disturbing cow-calf behaviours following parturition. Cow-calf behaviour was recorded over a 4-year study period from a total of 300 births involving 200 Nellore, 54 Guzerat, 20 Gyr and 26 Caracu cows. The calving site in relation to the location of the herd, considering cow-calf pairs within, close or distant to the herd, the presence of vultures and the behaviour of cows and calves were recorded instantaneously, at 5-min interval. On average, vultures were present at 80% of the calving sites. The frequency of vultures present at calving sites was dependent on the years for the Nellore herd, increasing from 1998 to 2003. When vultures were present, the time that the cow was in contact with its calf decreased, and the percentage of time that the cow was standing still increased. Vultures were observed pecking cows and their neonates during 34.1% of all recordings. However, in only two cases pecking injuries were actually observed on calves that were noted to be very weak. The preliminary results suggest that although black vultures cannot be characterized as a predator of neonate calves, they sometimes attack neonate calves and their presence near the calving sites alter the behaviours of cows and calves. © 2012 The Animal Consortium.

Comportamento de poedeiras criadas a diferentes densidades e tamanhos de grupo em ambiente enriquecido

The objective of this work was to determine the behavioral differences among laying hens reared at different densities and group sizes, in an enriched environment. Isa Brownlaying hens with ages from 30 to 32-week-old, in small-sized and deformed pens, were used. Hens were raised during 28 days in bays with shavings bedding, perch and nest. Two group sizes were evaluated (6 and 12 fowls) and at two rearing densities (774 and 1,440 cm2 by fowl) in a factorial arrangement with three replicates. In fifteen-minute video footages, it was recorded the frequency and the expression period for the following behavior were recorded: feather scratching, sand bath, wing beating, drinking water, pecking, head scratching, earth scratching, eating, perching, leg stretching, pursuing, sitting, and nest visiting. The treatments and the interaction between them had significant effects. The six-hen group increased the frequency of behavior types that indicate fowl frustration, regardless of density. The group size is the most important factor for hen well-being.

O financiamento da firma e os arranjos produtivos locais: uma abordagem do APL Aeroespacial de São José dos Campos-SP

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Análise radiográfica da modelagem de canais radiculares ovalados realizada com sistemas rotatórios de níquel-titânio

Pós-graduação em Odontologia - FOAR

Temperatura e concentração de CO2 durante a incubação interferem na morfofisiologia do sistema digestório de frangos de corte

Pós-graduação em Zootecnia - FCAV

Métodos de debicagem em poedeiras comerciais

Pós-graduação em Zootecnia - FMVZ

Efeito da proximidade de estradas e da paisagem sobre a frugivoria em fragmentos florestais, utilizando frutos artificiais

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Resistance to Flexural Fatigue of Reciproc R25 Files under Continuous Rotation and Reciprocating Movement

Introduction: The aim of the present work was to evaluate the resistance to flexural fatigue of Reciproc R25 nickel-titanium files, 25 mm, used in continuous rotation motion or reciprocation motion, in dynamic assays device. Methods: Thirty-six Reciproc R25 files were divided into 2 groups (n = 18) according to kinematics applied, continuous rotary (group CR) and reciprocation motion (group RM). The files were submitted to dynamic assays device moved by an electric engine with 300 rpm of speed that permitted the reproduction of pecking motion. The files run on a ring's groove of temperate steel, simulating instrumentation of a curved root canal with 400 and 5 mm of curvature radius. The fracture of file was detected by sensor of device, and the time was marked. The data were analyzed statistically by Student's t test, with level of significance of 95%. Results: The instruments moved by reciprocating movement reached significantly higher numbers of cycles before fracture (mean, 1787.78 cycles) when compared with instruments moved by continuous rotary (mean, 816.39 cycles). Conclusions: The results showed that the reciprocation motion improves flexural fatigue resistance in nickel-titanium instrument Reciproc R25 when compared with continuous rotation movement. (J Endod 2012;38:684-687)

Fatores institucionais e assimetria informacional: influência na estrutura de capital de empresas brasileiras

O objetivo principal deste trabalho é analisar se a presença de importantes fatores institucionais brasileiros, como o acesso a fontes e linhas diferenciadas de financiamento, afeta a significância estatística e econômica da assimetria informacional, principal pressuposto da teoria de pecking order, na determinação da estrutura de capital de empresas brasileiras. Para tanto, foram utilizadas variáveis de controle, variáveis representativas de fatores institucionais e de assimetria informacional num painel de dados referente a empresas brasileiras de setores industriais, cujas ações foram negociadas na Bovespa, no período 1997-2007. Como principais resultados encontra-se que as variáveis tamanho, tangibilidade, rentabilidade e risco são importantes determinantes da estrutura de capital das empresas analisadas, sendo também significativa a participação de linhas diferenciadas no endividamento dessas empresas. Em resposta ao objetivo da pesquisa, verifica-se que a assimetria informacional não perde significância estatística e econômica no modelo proposto, após a inclusão de variáveis representativas de fatores institucionais, o que evidencia a importância da assimetria informacional na determinação da estrutura de capital de empresas brasileiras. O sinal negativo encontrado apoia a teoria de pecking order, na qual essas empresas seriam menos endividadas devido à possibilidade de captarem recursos por meio da emissão de ações. Ressalta-se que as proxies utilizadas para representar o atributo assimetria informacional constituem uma limitação da pesquisa. Em razão disso, sugere-se, para trabalhos futuros, a utilização de outras variáveis, com o propósito de verificar a consistência dos resultados aqui encontrados, bem como a análise da influência da assimetria informacional sobre o custo de capital de empresas brasileiras, com o intuito de verificar se empresas consideradas com menor assimetria informacional conseguem captar recursos a taxas de juros mais atrativas.

Le determinanti del ricorso al debito delle piccole e medie imprese italiane: un'analisi empirica

L’analisi condotta nella tesi mira ad indagare le determinanti del debito delle piccole e medie imprese italiane: la domanda di ricerca è indirizzata a capire se la struttura finanziaria di queste ultime segue i modelli teorici sviluppati nell’ambito della letteratura di Corporate Finance o se, d’altro canto, non sia possibile prescindere dalle peculiarità delle piccole e medie imprese per spiegare il ricorso alle diverse fonti di finanziamento. La ricerca empirica effettuata nella dissertazione vuole essere un tentativo di coniugare le teorie di riferimento e le evidenze empiriche relative alle piccole e medie imprese italiane, analizzandone il comportamento attraverso lo studio del campione di dati fornito da Capitalia, relativo alla Nona Indagine per il periodo 2001-2003. Il campione in oggetto fa riferimento a circa 4000 imprese con più di 10 addetti, prevalentemente del settore manifatturiero. Per indagare le determinanti del debito nelle sue componenti più tradizionali, si sono prese in considerazione il debito commerciale e il debito bancario a breve termine come forme di finanziamento correnti mentre, tra le forme di finanziamento di medio-lungo periodo, le variabili usate sono state il ricorso al debito bancario a lungo termine e a strumenti obbligazionari. Inoltre, si è ricorso anche a misure più tradizionali di leva finanziaria, quali il rapporto di indebitamento, la proporzione tra debiti bancari, sia di breve che di lungo periodo, e l’ammontare dei finanziamenti esterni rispetto al valore dell’impresa, distinguendo anche qui, tra finanziamenti a breve e a lungo termine. L’analisi descrittiva ha mostrato il massiccio ricorso al debito bancario e, in generale, alle forme di indebitamento a breve. Le imprese di dimensioni minori, più giovani e opache tendono a ricorrere alle fonti interne e a forme di indebitamento a breve, mentre le imprese maggiormente dimensionate mostrano una struttura del debito più articolata. Questo ha suggerito la definizione di una diversa misura di debito, che tiene conto della complessità della sua struttura all’interno delle imprese, in base ad un ricorso di tipo gerarchico alle fonti di finanziamento: il grado di complessità dipende dalle tipologie e dalla quantità dei contratti di debito conclusi dall’impresa . E’ plausibile pensare che le imprese ricorrano prima alle fonti interne di finanziamento, perché prive di costi, e poi all’indebitamento nei confronti di diversi stakeholders: rispetto alla prossimità e alla facilità dell’ottenimento del finanziamento, è sembrato naturale pensare che un’impresa ricorra dapprima al debito commerciale, poi al debito bancario e solo infine all’emissione di obbligazioni, in un ordine gerarchico. Ne consegue che se un’impresa (non) ha contratto debiti con fornitori, banche e mercato, la complessità della struttura del suo debito è massima (nulla). L’analisi econometrica successiva è stata indirizzata in tre direzioni. In primis, l’analisi longitudinale dei dati è stata volta ad evidenziare se la struttura finanziaria delle PMI risponde ad un particolare modello teorico, in accordo con le teoria tradizionali di riferimento. In secondo luogo, l’analisi delle determinanti si è allargata allo studio degli aspetti peculiari delle imprese medio-piccole. Infine, si è indagato se, nell’ambito delle imprese di dimensioni minori, si osservano comportamenti omogenei oppure se determinate scelte nelle fonti di finanziamento sono da ricondurre all’esistenza di alcuni vincoli. Quindi, partendo dalla rassegna dei principali riferimenti nella letteratura, costituiti dalla Trade-off theory (Modigliani e Miller, 1963, De Angelo e Masulis, 1980, Miller, 1977), dalla Pecking order theory (Myers 1984, Myers e Majluf, 1984) e dalla Financial growth cycle theory (Berger e Udell, 1998), una prima serie di analisi econometriche è stata rivolta alla verifica empirica delle teorie suddette. Una seconda analisi mira, invece, a capire se il comportamento delle imprese possa essere spiegato anche da altri fattori: il modello del ciclo di vita dell’impresa, mutuato dalle discipline manageriali, così come il contesto italiano e la particolarità del rapporto bancaimpresa, hanno suggerito l’analisi di altre determinanti al ricorso delle diverse fonti di debito. Di conseguenza, si sono usate delle opportune analisi econometriche per evidenziare se la struttura proprietaria e di controllo dell’impresa, il suo livello di complessità organizzativa possano incidere sulla struttura del debito delle imprese. Poi, si è indagato se il massiccio ricorso al debito bancario è spiegato dalle peculiarità del rapporto banca-impresa nel nostro Paese, rintracciabili nei fenomeni tipici del relationship lending e del multiaffidamento. Ancora, si sono verificati i possibili effetti di tale rapporto sulla complessità della struttura del debito delle imprese. Infine, l’analisi della letteratura recente sulla capital structure delle imprese, l’approccio sviluppato da Fazzari Hubbard e Petersen (1988) e Almeida e Campello (2006 , 2007) ha suggerito un ultimo livello di analisi. La presenza di vincoli nelle decisioni di finanziamento, legati essenzialmente alla profittabilità, alla dimensione delle imprese, alle sue opportunità di crescita, e alla reputazione verso l’esterno, secondo la letteratura recente, è cruciale nell’analisi delle differenze sistematiche di comportamento delle imprese. Per di più, all’interno del lavoro di tesi, così come in Almeida e Campello (2007), si è ipotizzato che la propensione agli investimenti possa essere considerata un fattore endogeno rispetto alla struttura del debito delle imprese, non esogeno come la letteratura tradizionale vuole. Per questo motivo, si è proceduto ad un ultimo tipo di analisi econometrica, volta a rilevare possibili differenze significative nel comportamento delle imprese rispetto al ricorso alle fonti di finanziamento a titolo di debito: nel caso in cui esse presentino una dimensione contenuta, una bassa redditività e una scarsa reputazione all’esterno infatti, vi dovrebbe essere un effetto di complementarietà tra fonti interne ed esterne. L’effetto sarebbe tale per cui non sussisterebbe, o per lo meno non sarebbe significativa, una relazione negativa tra fonti interne ed esterne. Complessivamente, i risultati delle analisi empiriche condotte, supportano sia le teorie classiche di riferimento nell’ambito della disciplina della Corporate finance, sia la teoria proposta da Berger e Udell (1998): le variabili che risultano significative nella spiegazione della struttura del debito sono principalmente quelle relative alla dimensione, all’età, al livello e alla qualità delle informazioni disponibili. Inoltre, il ricorso a fonti interne risulta essere la primaria fonte di finanziamento, seguita dal debito. Il ricorso a fonti esterne, in particolare al debito bancario, aumenta quanto più l’impresa cresce, ha una struttura solida e la capacità di fornire delle garanzie, e ha una reputazione forte. La struttura del debito, peraltro, diventa più complessa all’aumentare della dimensione, dell’età e del livello di informazioni disponibili. L’analisi della struttura proprietaria e della componente organizzativa all’interno delle imprese ha evidenziato principalmente che la struttura del debito aumenta di complessità con maggiore probabilità se la proprietà è diffusa, se vi è un management indipendente e se la piramide organizzativa è ben definita. Relativamente al rapporto banca-impresa, i principali risultati mostrano che l’indebitamento bancario sembra essere favorito dai fenomeni di relationship lending e dal multiaffidamento. Tali peculiarità assumono tratti diversi a seconda della fase del ciclo di vita delle imprese della Nona Indagine. Infine, per quanto attiene all’ultima tipologia di analisi condotta, le evidenze empiriche suggeriscono che le piccole e medie imprese possano essere soggette a delle restrizioni che si riflettono nell’ambito delle loro politiche di investimento. Tali vincoli, relativi alla dimensione, ai profitti conseguiti e alla reputazione all’esterno, aiutano a spiegare le scelte di finanziamento delle PMI del campione.

Dietary inclusion of feathers affects intestinal microbiota and microbial metabolites in growing Leghorn-type chickens.

Feather pecking in laying hens is a serious behavioral problem that is often associated with feather eating. The intake of feathers may influence the gut microbiota and its metabolism. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of 2 different diets, with or without 5% ground feathers, on the gut microbiota and the resulting microbial fermentation products and to identify keratin-degrading bacteria in chicken digesta. One-day-old Lohmann-Selected Leghorn chicks were divided into 3 feeding groups: group A (control), B (5% ground feathers in the diet), and C, in which the control diet was fed until wk 12 and then switched to the 5% feather diet to study the effect of time of first feather ingestion. The gut microbiota was analyzed by cultivation and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of ileum and cecum digesta. Short-chain fatty acids, ammonia, and lactate concentrations were measured as microbial metabolites. The concentration of keratinolytic bacteria increased after feather ingestion in the ileum (P < 0.001) and cecum (P = 0.033). Bacterial species that hydrolyzed keratin were identified as Enterococcus faecium, Lactobacillus crispatus, Lactobacillus reuteri-like species (97% sequence homology), and Lactobacillus salivarius-like species (97% sequence homology). Molecular analysis of cecal DNA extracts showed that the feather diet lowered the bacterial diversity indicated by a reduced richness (P < 0.001) and shannon (P = 0.012) index. The pattern of microbial metabolites indicated some changes, especially in the cecum. This study showed that feather intake induced an adaptation of the intestinal microbiota in chickens. It remains unclear to what extent the changed metabolism of the microbiota reflects the feather intake and could have an effect on the behavior of the hens.

Return of Equity Issues in the Spanish Stock Market from the Investor’s Perspective, during the 1997-2012 Period

Is it profitable for an investor, from a risk-return perspective, to acquire a stake in a quoted company when a capital increase is announced? This paper analyses the return obtained from the investment in equity issues with cash contribution and pre-emptive rights, aimed at funding corporate activities: acquisitions, investments in new facilities and/or strengthening the balance sheet of the companies undertaking the equity issue. During the 16 years covered by the study, the results show a negative average excess risk-adjusted return of almost 5%, from the moment that the equity offer is announced until the completion of the preferential subscription period. To obtain this excess return, the difference between the nominal Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and the expected return, using the CAPM, is computed for each equity issue. The intention behind this method is to eliminate the effects of time and any other possible effect on the stock price during the period of the analysis.The results from this article are consistent with the Pecking Order theory for the Spanish Stock Market also six months after the preferential subscription period. However, there is a positive return after three months.

ANÁLISE DAS MUDANÇAS DOS FATORES DETERMINANTES DA ESTRUTURA DE CAPITAL EM FUNÇÃO DO CICLO DE VIDA DAS EMPRESAS BRASILEIRAS

As várias teorias acerca da estrutura de capital despertam interesse motivando diversos estudos sobre o assunto sem, no entanto, ter um consenso. Outro tema aparentemente pouco explorado refere-se ao ciclo de vida das empresas e como ele pode influenciar a estrutura de capital. Este estudo teve como objetivo verificar quais determinantes possuem maior relevância no endividamento das empresas e se estes determinantes alteram-se dependendo do ciclo de vida da empresa apoiada pelas teorias Trade Off, Pecking Order e Teoria da Agência. Para alcançar o objetivo deste trabalho foi utilizado análise em painel de efeito fixo sendo a amostra composta por empresas brasileiras de capital aberto, com dados secundários disponíveis na Economática® no período de 2005 a 2013, utilizando-se os setores da BM&FBOVESPA. Como resultado principal destaca-se o mesmo comportamento entre a amostra geral, alto e baixo crescimento pelo endividamento contábil para o determinante Lucratividade apresentando uma relação negativa, e para os determinantes Oportunidade de Crescimento e Tamanho, estes com uma relação positiva. Para os grupos de alto e baixo crescimento alguns determinantes apresentaram resultados diferentes, como a singularidade que resultou significância nestes dois grupos, sendo positiva no baixo crescimento e negativa no alto crescimento, para o valor colateral dos ativos e benefício fiscal não dívida apresentaram significância apenas no grupo de baixo crescimento. Para o endividamento a valor de mercado foi observado significância para o Benefício fiscal não dívida e Singularidade. Este resultado reforça o argumento de que o ciclo de vida influência a estrutura de capital.