A possible role for a low molecular weight peptide in regulation of testosterone production by rat Leydig cells

Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of Percoll purified Leydig cell proteins from 20- and 120-day-old rats revealed a significant decrease in a low molecular weight peptide in the adult rats. Administration of human chorionic gonadotropin to immature rats resulted in a decrease in the low molecular weight peptide along with increase in testosterone production. Modulation of the peptide by human chorionic gonadotropin could be confirmed by Western blotting. The presence of a similar peptide could be detected by Western blotting in testes of immature mouse, hamster, guinea pig but not in adrenal, placenta and corpus luteum. Administration of testosterone propionate which is known to inhibit the pituitary luteinizing hormone levels in adult rats resulted in an increase in the low molecular weight peptide, as checked by Western blotting. It is suggested that this peptide may have a role in regulation of acquisition of responsiveness to luteinizing hormone by immature rat Leydig cells.

Effect of altering endogenous gonadotrophin concentrations on the kinetics of testicular germ cell turnover in the bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata)

The role of FSH and diurnal testosterone rhythms in specific germ cell transformations during spermatogenesis were investigated using DNA flow cytometry and morphometry of the seminiferous epithelium of the adult male bonnet monkey (Macaca radiata), the endogenous hormone levels of which were altered by two different protocols. (1) Active immunization of five monkeys for 290 days using ovine FSH adsorbed on Alhydrogel resulted in the neutralization of endogenous FSH, leaving the LH and diurnal testosterone rhythms normal. (2) Desensitization of the pituitary gonadotrophs of ten monkeys by chronically infusing gonadotrophin-releasing hormone analogue, buserelin (50 micrograms/day release rate), via an Alzet pump implant (s.c.) led to a 60-80% reduction in LH and FSH as well as total abolition of testosterone rhythms. The basal testosterone level (3.3 +/- 2.0 micrograms/l), however, was maintained in this group by way of an s.c. testosterone silicone elastomer implant. Both of the treatments caused significant (P < 0.01) nearly identical reduction in testicular biopsy scores, mitotic indices and daily sperm production rates compared with respective controls. The germ cell DNA flow cytometric profiles of the two treatment groups, however, were fundamentally different from each other. The pituitary-desensitized group exhibited a significant (P < 0.001) increase in 2C (spermatogonial) and decrease in 1C (round spermatid) populations while S-phase (preleptotene spermatocytes) and 4C (primary spermatocytes) populations were normal, indicating an arrest in meiosis caused presumably by the lack of increment in nocturnal serum testosterone. In contrast, in the FSH-immunized group, at day 80 when the FSH deprivation was total, the primary block appeared to be at the conversion of spermatogonia (2C) to cells in S-phase and primary spermatocytes (4C reduced by > 90%). In addition, at this time, although the round spermatid (1C) population was reduced by 65% (P < 0.01) the elongate spermatid (HC) population showed an increase of 52% (P < 0.05). This, taken together with the fact that sperm output in the ejaculate is reduced by 80%, suggests a blockade in spermiogenesis and spermiation. Administration of booster injections of oFSH at time-points at which the antibody titre was markedly low (at days 84 and 180) resulted in a transient resurgence in spermatogenesis (at day 180 and 228), and this again was blocked by day 290 when the FSH antibody titre increased.

Remarkable Effect of Chalcogen Substitution on an Enzyme Mimetic for Deiodination of Thyroid Hormones

Iodothyronine deiodinases are selenoenzymes which regulate the thyroid hormone homeostasis by catalyzing the regioselective deiodination of thyroxine (T4). Synthetic deiodinase mimetics are important not only to understand the mechanism of enzyme catalysis, but also to develop therapeutic agents as abnormal thyroid hormone levels have implications in different diseases, such as hypoxia, myocardial infarction, critical illness, neuronal ischemia, tissue injury, and cancer. Described herein is that the replacement of sulfur/selenium atoms in a series of deiodinase mimetics by tellurium remarkably alters the reactivity as well as regioselectivity toward T4. The tellurium compounds reported in this paper represent the first examples of deiodinase mimetics which mediate sequential deiodination of T4 to produce all the hormone derivatives including T0 under physiologically relevant conditions.

Stress on the ward: evidence of safety tipping points in hospitals

Do hospitals experience safety tipping points as utilization increases, and if so, what are the implications for hospital operations management? We argue that safety tipping points occur when managerial escalation policies are exhausted and workload variability buffers are depleted. Front-line clinical staff is forced to ration resources and, at the same time, becomes more error prone as a result of elevated stress hormone levels. We confirm the existence of safety tipping points for in-hospital mortality using the discharge records of 82,280 patients across six high-mortality-risk conditions from 256 clinical departments of 83 German hospitals. Focusing on survival during the first seven days following admission, we estimate a mortality tipping point at an occupancy level of 92.5%. Among the 17% of patients in our sample who experienced occupancy above the tipping point during the first seven days of their hospital stay, high occupancy accounted for one in seven deaths. The existence of a safety tipping point has important implications for hospital management. First, flexible capacity expansion is more cost-effective for safety improvement than rigid capacity, because it will only be used when occupancy reaches the tipping point. In the context of our sample, flexible staffing saves more than 40% of the cost of a fully staffed capacity expansion, while achieving the same reduction in mortality. Second, reducing the variability of demand by pooling capacity in hospital clusters can greatly increase safety in a hospital system, because it reduces the likelihood that a patient will experience occupancy levels beyond the tipping point. Pooling the capacity of nearby hospitals in our sample reduces the number of deaths due to high occupancy by 34%.

8～12岁男孩的性激素与智力、人格的关系

Recently there emerged more and more researhes concerning about sex hormone-related cognitive ability and behaviours. Few were carried out in pre- to early adolescent children., and the objective of the current study is to investigate whether there are covariance between sex hormones, intelligence and personality in 232 pre- to early adolescent boys, including 62 gifted boys. Indexes of sex hormone levels were salivary testosterone and estradiol concentrations, the 2D:4D digit ratio ( a reliable pointer of prenatal sex hormone concentraions). The Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test and a Chinese version of Children’s Personality Questionaire was applied in the current study. The main findings are: 1) salivary sex hormone concentrations significantly positively correlated with intelligence performance in 10-year-old boys; 2) salivary testosterone negatively related to intelligence performance in 12-year-old boys; 3) gifted boys bears lower testosterone concentrations in both prenatal period and pre- to early adolescence; 4) for personality, higher salivary estradiol was related to extraversion and digit ratios correlated with several personality factors in 8-year-old boys. In conclusion, results in the current study suggested that for male early maturers, intelligence may be negatively influenced by early coming androgen surge. In contrast, male late matures may benefit from their lately and moderately increasing hormone. Besides, the results suggested that the relationship between 2D:4D digit ratio and personality may also be paid attention to.

BLAZE: Bettering the lives of animals in zoo environments

Gemstone Team BLAZE

Male morph predicts investment in larval immune function in the dung beetle, Onthophagus taurus

Investment in immunity is costly, so that resource-based trade-offs between immunity and sexually selected ornaments might be expected. The amount of resources that an individual can invest in each trait will be limited by the total resources available to them. It would therefore be informative to investigate how investment in immune function changes during growth or production of the sexual trait as resources are diverted to it. Using the dung beetle, Onthophagus taurus, which displays both sexual and male dimorphism in horn size, we examined changes in one measure of immune function, phenoloxidase (PO) activity, in the hemolymph of larvae prior to and during horn growth. We found that PO levels differed between small- and large-horned males throughout the final instar prior to the point where investment in horn growth was taking place. PO levels in females were intermediate to the 2 male morphs. These differences could not be accounted for by differences in condition, measured as hemolymph protein levels and weight. We suggest that the observed differences might be associated with sex- and morph-specific variation in juvenile hormone levels.

An in vitro investigation of endocrine disrupting effects of tricothecenes deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2, HT-2 toxins

Trichothecenes are a large family of chemically related mycotoxins. Deoxynivalenol (DON), T-2 and HT-2 toxins belong to this family and are produced by various species of Fusarium. The H295R steroidogenesis assay, regulation of steroidogenic gene expression and reporter gene assays (RGAs) for the detection of androgen, estrogen, progestagen and glucocorticoid (ant)agonist responses, have been used to assess the endocrine disrupting activity of DON, T-2 and HT-2 toxins.

H295R cells were used as a model for steroidogenesis and gene expression studies and exposed with either DON (0.1–1000 ng/ml), T-2 toxin (0.0005–5 ng/ml) or HT-2 toxin (0.005–50 ng/ml) for 48 h. We observed a reduction in hormone levels in media of exposed cells following radioimmunoassay. Cell viability was determined by four colorimetric assays and we observed reduced cell viability with increasing toxin concentrations partly explaining the significant reduction in hormone levels at the highest toxin concentration of all three trichothecenes.

Thirteen of the 16 steroidogenic genes analyzed by quantitative real time PCR (RT-qPCR) were significantly regulated (P < 0.05) by DON (100 ng/ml), T-2 toxin (0.5 ng/ml) and HT-2 toxin (5 ng/ml) compared to the control, with reference genes (B2M, ATP5B and ACTB). Whereas HMGR and CYP19 were down-regulated, CYP1A1 and CYP21 were up-regulated by all three trichothecenes. DON further up-regulated CYP17, HSD3B2, CYP11B2 and CYP11B1 and down-regulated NR5A1. T-2 toxin caused down-regulation of NR0B1 and NR5A1 whereas HT-2 toxin induced up-regulation of EPHX and HSD17B1 and down-regulation of CYP11A and CYP17. The expressions of MC2R, StAR and HSD17B4 genes were not significantly affected by any of the trichothecenes in the present study.

Although the results indicate that there is no evidence to suggest that DON, T-2 and HT-2 toxins directly interact with the steroid hormone receptors to cause endocrine disruption, the present findings indicate that exposure to DON, T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin have effects on cell viability, steroidogenesis and alteration in gene expression indicating their potential as endocrine disruptors.

An investigation of the endocrine disrupting potential of enniatin B using in vitro bioassays

Evidence that some of the fungal metabolites present in food and feed may act as potential endocrine disruptors is increasing. Enniatin B (ENN B) is among the emerging Fusarium mycotoxins known to contaminate cereals. In this study, the H295R and neonatal porcine Leydig cell (LC) models, and reporter gene assays (RGAs) have been used to investigate the endocrine disrupting activity of ENN B. Aspects of cell viability, cell cycle distribution, hormone production as well as the expression of key steroidogenic genes were assessed using the H295R cell model. Cell viability and hormone production levels were determined in the LC model, while cell viability and steroid hormone nuclear receptor transcriptional activity were measured using the RGAs. ENN B (0.01–100 μM) was cytotoxic in the H295R and LC models used; following 48 h incubation with 100 μM. Flow cytometry analysis showed that ENN B exposure (0.1–25 μM) led to an increased proportion of cells in the S phase at higher ENN B doses (>10 μM) while cells at G0/G1 phase were reduced. At the receptor level, ENN B (0.00156–15.6 μM) did not appear to induce any specific (ant) agonistic responses in reporter gene assays (RGAs), however cell viability was affected at 15.6 μM. Measurement of hormone levels in H295R cells revealed that the production of progesterone, testosterone and cortisol in exposed cells were reduced, but the level of estradiol was not significantly affected. There was a general reduction of estradiol and testosterone levels in exposed LC. Only the highest dose (100 μM) used had a significant effect, suggesting the observed inhibitory effect is more likely associated with the cytotoxic effect observed at this dose. Gene transcription analysis in H295R cells showed that twelve of the sixteen genes were significantly modulated (p < 0.05) by ENN B (10 μM) compared to the control. Genes HMGR, StAR, CYP11A, 3βHSD2 and CYP17 were downregulated, whereas the expression of CYP1A1, NR0B1, MC2R, CYP21, CYP11B1, CYP11B2 and CYP19 were upregulated. The reduction of hormones and modulation of genes at the lower dose (10 μM) in the H295R cells suggests that adrenal endocrine toxicity is an important potential hazard.

Étude de l’enzyme UGT2B28 et son rôle dans le cancer de la prostate

Contexte: L’inactivation des androgènes est majoritairement régulée par des enzymes du métabolisme de la famille des UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT). Ce procédé métabolique permet de contrôler la biodisponibilité des hormones stéroïdiennes systémiques et locales. Objectif : L’objectif était d’étudier la relation entre l’expression de l’enzyme UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 2B polypeptide 28 (UGT2B28), impliquée dans la biotransformation des hormones, avec les niveaux hormonaux circulants, et les caractéristiques clinico-pathologiques dans le cancer de la prostate (CaP). Conception et participants : Nous avons utilisé dans cette étude la technique d’immunohostochimie à grande échelle (tissue microarray) sur les tissus de 239 patients ayant un CaP localisé. L’étude des 51 patients additionnels ne possédant pas l’enzyme UGT2B28 dans leur génome, a été effectuée pour confirmer l’importance de cette enzyme sur les niveaux hormonaux circulants. Résultats : La surexpression de l’enzyme UGT2B28 a été associée à des niveaux d’antigène prostatique spécifique (APS) au diagnostic plus faibles, à un score de Gleason plus élevé, à des marges et statuts nodaux positifs, et fut associée de façon indépendante au risque de progression. La surexpression de l’enzyme fut également associée à des niveaux circulants de testostérone (T) et dihydrotestostérone (DHT) plus élevés. Les patients n’exprimant pas le gène UGT2B28 avaient des niveaux plus bas de T (19%), de DHT (17%), de métabolites glucuronidés (18-38%), et des niveaux plus élevés du précurseur surrénalien androsténédione (36%). Conclusion : L’enzyme UGT2B28 modifie les niveaux circulants de T et DHT, et sa surexpression est associée avec un CaP à plus haut grade. Notre étude a permis de découvrir un nouveau rôle d’UGT2B28, celui de régulateur de la stéroïdogenèse, et a souligné l’interconnexion entre les capacités de biotransformation hormonale des cellules cancéreuses, des niveaux hormonaux, des caractéristiques clinicopathologiques et du risque de progression.

Obesidade infantojuvenil e estado socioeconómico

RESUMO - Introdução: Atualmente, o nível socioeconómico é um dos mais poderosos preditores do estado de saúde, com grande influência no desenvolvimento da obesidade. O orçamento famíliar, os níveis de educação dos pais e o desemprego são fatores que podem influenciar as escolhas alimentares dos mais jovens. Objetivos: Analisar a relação entre o nível socioeconómico e a prevalência de excesso de peso e de obesidade em crianças e jovens por distrito de Portugal continental. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo ecológico, analítico, observacional e transversal, onde foram recolhidos dados socioeconómicos (taxa de desemprego, rendimento médio/ trabalhador, contribuição para o PIB nacional, proporção da população residente que beneficia do rendimento social de inserção, proporção da população residente com ensino superior completo) do anuário estatistico de 2008 e dos censos de 2011. Os dados foram recolhidos por distrito e correlacionados com a prevalência de excesso de peso e de obesidade infantojuvenil de Portugal continental. Resultados: Verificou-se que a prevalência de obesidade e excesso de peso é significativamente diferente em cada distrito com valor p = 0,008. Demonstrou-se que não se verificaram relações significativas com as variáveis socioeconómicas e a prevalência de excesso de peso e obesidade por distrito, com exceção da taxa de desemprego, em que se verificou uma relação positiva significativa com a prevalência de obesidade. (p = 0,02) Conclusões: Assim, com a realização do estudo verificou-se que a região/ distrito onde a criança vive pode influenciar significativamente a prevalência de obesidade. Em relação ao nível socioconómico demonstrou-se que a taxa de desemprego está correlacionada com maior prevalência de obesidade infantouvenil. Deste modo, demonstra-se que o nível socioeconómico, como fator etiológico da obesidade infantojuvenil é um campo de emergente análise e intervenção.

Étude sur l’oxygénation des lits capillaires du disque optique au cours du cycle menstruel chez les femmes

Il est connu qu’on retrouve chez les femmes en post-ménopause un risque plus important de développer des maladies oculaires comparativement aux hommes du même groupe d’âge. Il semble que les changements hormonaux, et en particulier la baisse importante des niveaux d’estradiol, secondaires à la sénescence folliculaire constituent un facteur étiologique à long terme. Cela étant, il est légitime de se demander si les variations des niveaux d’hormones sexuelles endogènes peuvent également occasionner des effets à court terme sur les tissus de l’œil. Cette interrogation constitue d’ailleurs le motif principal de l’élaboration de la présente étude. Sachant qu’il se produit chez les femmes non ménopausées des variations continuelles des niveaux d’hormones sexuelles stéroïdiennes au cours de leur cycle menstruel, des femmes en âge de procréer ont été recrutées comme sujets d’étude. Dans un deuxième temps, afin de trouver le paramètre d’intérêt, on a effectué une revue de la documentation scientifique qui révèle un fait bien établi : les estrogènes favorisent la vasodilatation des vaisseaux sanguins par l’intermédiaire du monoxyde d’azote, et permettent, par le fait même, l’accroissement du débit sanguin tissulaire. Or, comment mesurer des variations de débit sanguin dans des tissus oculaires? Comme il est expliqué dans la discussion du présent mémoire, les variations d’oxygénation dans un organe dont le métabolisme est relativement stable sont le reflet de variations de débit sanguin. Grâce à une technique de mesure basée sur la spectroréflectométrie, il est possible de mesurer le taux d’oxyhémoglobine (HbO2) des lits capillaires du disque optique. En observant les variations du taux d’oxyhémoglobine au cours du cycle menstruel chez les sujets, on peut ainsi mesurer l’effet des variations hormonales cycliques sur l’irrigation des tissus oculaires. En somme, l’objectif de cette recherche est de mieux comprendre, en suivant le cycle menstruel des femmes, l’effet des hormones sexuelles endogènes sur l’oxygénation des lits capillaires du disque optique. Étant à la base du métabolisme de l’œil, l’apport en oxygène et en divers substrat véhiculés par la circulation sanguine est important au maintien de la santé oculaire. L’éclaircissement du lien entre les hormones et l’oxygénation de la rétine constituerait un avancement important, puisqu’il permettrait de comprendre pourquoi certaines atteintes oculaires, comme la cécité, touchent davantage les femmes. Les résultats de cette étude ont démontré que le taux d’oxyhémoglobine mesuré dans les lits capillaires du disque optique de l’œil ne subit pratiquement pas de variations significatives durant le cycle menstruel lorsqu’on considère les incertitudes des valeurs mesurées. Également, on observe une variabilité similaire des taux d’oxyhémoglobine mesurés chez les femmes en âge de procréation et chez les hommes du même groupe d’âge. Cela suggère que les changements hormonaux cycliques, qui ne se produisent que chez les femmes, n’occasionnent probablement pas de variation significative mesurable du taux d’oxyhémoglobine. Bref, malgré les effets possibles des estrogènes sur le diamètre artériolaire, il semble que les mécanismes locaux de régulation du débit sanguin tissulaire maintiennent un état d’équilibre propre au tissu irrigué et adapté aux besoins métaboliques locaux.

Analyse systématique de la relation entre l’exposition prénatale aux biphényles polychlorés et les effets neurodéveloppementaux et thyroïdiens chez l’enfant

Les biphényles polychlorés (BPC) sont des contaminants de l’environnement, omniprésents dans la chaîne alimentaire, qui ont une propension à la bioaccumulation dans le corps humain. Ils traversent la barrière placentaire et sont suspectés d’induire des altérations du développement mental ou moteur chez des enfants exposés aux BPC pendant la vie intrautérine. Ces effets s’expliqueraient notamment par la capacité des BPC à perturber l’homéostasie de la fonction thyroïdienne chez la femme enceinte ou le nouveau-né. Malgré le nombre considérable d’études épidémiologiques réalisées, la relation entre l’exposition prénatale aux BPC et les altérations du développement mental et moteur ou de la fonction thyroïdienne n’a pas encore été clairement établie ; d’une part, différents bioindicateurs de l’exposition ont été employés (différents congénères de BPC mesurés et différentes matrices biologiques ou unités de mesure) limitant la comparaison directe entre les études et, d’autre part, le lien de causalité entre les BPC et les effets ciblés n’a pas été vérifié avec des critères épidémiologiques reconnus. Cette étude a été réalisée afin d’analyser la relation « concentration biologique de BPC – effet » entre l'exposition aux BPC de la mère pendant la grossesse et le développement mental et moteur de l’enfant ainsi que les paramètres de la fonction thyroïdienne chez la femme enceinte et le nouveau-né à partir d’une analyse systématique des études épidémiologiques disponibles en standardisant les données biologiques entre les études. Sur la base de considérations toxicocinétiques et en appliquant des facteurs de conversion établis à partir de la littérature épidémiologique publiée, les concentrations des BPC rapportées dans les différentes études revues ont été standardisées en termes d’équivalent de BPC totaux par kilogramme de lipides dans le plasma maternel (µg PCBMPEQ/kg de lipides). Afin d’analyser la possibilité d’une association causale entre l’exposition aux BPC et les effets d’intérêt, les critères de Hill ont été appliqués systématiquement à l’ensemble des associations « concentrations biologiques standardisées – effet ciblés ». En appliquant cette approche aux données publiées de 20 études épidémiologiques sur la relation entre les BPC et le poids à la naissance, l’exposition prénatale aux BPC, aux niveaux décrits (moyenne < 1920 µg PCBMPEQ/kg de lipides), n’apparaît pas associée de manière significative à un poids à la naissance inférieur à 2500 g dans les populations étudiées. Par ailleurs, en considérant des études menées sur le suivi de neuf cohortes d’enfants, la probabilité qu’une altération cognitive ou motrice cliniquement significative, qui persiste entre la naissance et l’âge scolaire, soit observée à des concentrations de BPC totaux inférieures à 1000 µg PCBMPEQ/kg de lipides semble faible. Aussi, à partir de l’analyse systématique des données de 17 études épidémiologiques, l’exposition aux BPC aux niveaux standardisés décrits (moyenne < 1000 µg PCBMPEQ/kg de lipides) ne semble pas induire de variation des hormones thyroïdiennes ou de TSH en dehors des intervalles physiologiques reconnus chez la femme enceinte et le nouveau-né. Ainsi, la valeur biologique de référence établie à 1000 µg PCBMPEQ/kg de lipides pour prévenir les effets sur le développement devrait aussi prévenir les effets sur le poids à la naissance et la fonction thyroïdienne chez la femme enceinte ou le nouveau-né. Les résultats présentés dans cette thèse fournissent aux autorités de santé publique responsables de l’établissement de directives et des normes de l’information utile à la révision des critères sanitaires visant à protéger des effets des BPC sur le développement de l’enfant et la fonction thyroïdienne chez la femme enceinte et le nouveau-né.

Impact of menstrual cycle phase on insulin sensitivity measures and fasting lipids

There is evidence to suggest that insulin sensitivity may vary in response to changes in sex hormone levels. However, the results Of human studies designed to investigate changes in insulin sensitivity through the menstrual cycle have proved inconclusive. The aims of this Study were to 1) evaluate the impact of menstrual cycle phase on insulin sensitivity measures and 2) determine the variability Of insulin sensitivity measures within the same menstrual cycle phase. A controlled observational study of 13 healthy premenopausal women, not taking any hormone preparation and having regular menstrual cycles, was conducted. Insulin sensitivity (Si) and glucose effectiveness (Sg) were measured using an intravenous glucose tolerance test (IVGTT) with minimal model analysis. Additional Surrogate measures Of insulin sensitivity were calculated (homoeostasis model for insulin resistance [HOMA IR], quantitative insulin-to-glucose check index [QUICKI] and revised QUICKI [rQUICKI]), as well as plasma lipids. Each woman was tested in the luteal and follicular phases of her Menstrual cycle, and duplicate measures were taken in one phase of the cycle. No significant differences in insulin sensitivity (measured by the IVGTT or Surrogate markers) or plasma lipids were reported between the two phases of the menstrual cycle or between duplicate measures within the same phase. It was Concluded that variability in measures of insulin sensitivity were similar within and between menstrual phases.

Application of the BRAFO-tiered approach for benefit-risk assessment to case studies on natural foods

There is evidence that consumption of fish, especially oily fish, has substantial beneficial effects on health. In particular an inverse relationship of oily fish intake to coronary heart disease incidence has been established. These beneficial effects are ascribed to fish oil components including long chain ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. On the other hand it should be noted that oily fish also contains hazardous substances such as dioxins, PCBs and methylmercury. Soy consumption has been associated with potential beneficial and adverse effects. The claimed benefits include reduced risk of cardiovascular disease; osteoporosis, breast and prostate cancer whereas potential adverse effects include impaired thyroid function, disruption of sex hormone levels, changes in reproductive function and increased breast cancer risk The two cases of natural foods highlight the need to consider both risks and benefits in order to establish the net health impact associated to the consumption of specific food products. Within the Sixth Framework programme of the European Commission, the BRAFO project was funded to develop a framework that allows for the quantitative comparison of human health risks and benefits in relation to foods and food compounds. This paper describes the application of the developed framework to two natural foods, farmed salmon and soy protein. We conclude that the BRAFO methodology is highly applicable to natural foods. It will help the benefit-risk managers in selecting the appropriate dietary recommendations for the population.