Genetic polymorphisms in miRNAs targeting the estrogen receptor and their effect on breast cancer risk

Breast cancer is the cancer that most commonly affects women worldwide. This type of cancer is genetically complex, but is strongly linked to steroid hormone signalling systems. Because microRNAs act as translational regulators of multiple genes, including the steroid nuclear receptors, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in microRNAs genes can have potentially wide-ranging influences on breast cancer development. Thus, this study was conducted to investigate the relationships between six SNPs (rs6977848, rs199981120, rs185641358, rs113054794, rs66461782, and rs12940701) located in four miRNA genes predicted to target the estrogen receptor (miR-148a, miR-221, miR-186, and miR-152) and breast cancer risk in Caucasian Australian women. By using high resolution melt analysis (HRM) and polymerase chain reaction- restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP), 487 samples including 225 controls and 262 cases were genotyped. Analysis of their genotype and allele frequencies indicated that the differences between case and control populations was not significant for rs6977848, rs66461782, and rs12940701 because their p-values are 0.81, 0.93, 0.1 which are all above the threshold value (p=0.05). Our data thus suggests that these SNPs do not affect breast cancer risk in the tested population. In addition, rs199981120, rs185641358, and rs113054794 could not be found in this population, suggesting that these SNPs do not occur in Caucasian Australians.

Molecular Mechanisms of Androgen Receptor Interactions

The androgen receptor (AR) mediates the effects of the male sex-steroid hormones (androgens), testosterone and 5?-dihydrotestosterone. Androgens are critical in the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics. AR is a member of the steroid receptor ligand-inducible transcription factor family. The steroid receptor family is a subgroup of the nuclear receptor superfamily that also includes receptors for the active forms of vitamin A, vitamin D3, and thyroid hormones. Like all nuclear receptors, AR has a conserved modular structure consisting of a non-conserved amino-terminal domain (NTD), containing the intrinsic activation function 1, a highly conserved DNA-binding domain, and a conserved ligand-binding domain (LBD) that harbors the activation function 2. Each of these domains plays an important role in receptor function and signaling, either via intra- and inter-receptor interactions, interactions with specific DNA sequences, termed hormone response elements, or via functional interactions with domain-specific proteins, termed coregulators (coactivators and corepressors). Upon binding androgens, AR acquires a new conformational state, translocates to the nucleus, binds to androgen response elements, homodimerizes and recruits sequence-specific coregulatory factors and the basal transcription machinery. This set of events is required to activate gene transcription (expression). Gene transcription is a strictly modulated process that governs cell growth, cell homeostasis, cell function and cell death. Disruptions of AR transcriptional activity caused by receptor mutations and/or altered coregulator interactions are linked to a wide spectrum of androgen insensitivity syndromes, and to the pathogenesis of prostate cancer (CaP). The treatment of CaP usually involves androgen depletion therapy (ADT). ADT achieves significant clinical responses during the early stages of the disease. However, under the selective pressure of androgen withdrawal, androgen-dependent CaP can progress to an androgen-independent CaP. Androgen-independent CaP is invariably a more aggressive and untreatable form of the disease. Advancing our understanding of the molecular mechanisms behind the switch in androgen-dependency would improve our success of treating CaP and other AR related illnesses. This study evaluates how clinically identified AR mutations affect the receptor s transcriptional activity. We reveal that a potential molecular abnormality in androgen insensitivity syndrome and CaP patients is caused by disruptions of the important intra-receptor NTD/LBD interaction. We demonstrate that the same AR LBD mutations can also disrupt the recruitment of the p160 coactivator protein GRIP1. Our investigations reveal that 30% of patients with advanced, untreated local CaP have somatic mutations that may lead to increases in AR activity. We report that somatic mutations that activate AR may lead to early relapse in ADT. Our results demonstrate that the types of ADT a CaP patient receives may cause a clustering of mutations to a particular region of the receptor. Furthermore, the mutations that arise before and during ADT do not always result in a receptor that is more active, indicating that coregulator interactions play a pivotal role in the progression of androgen-independent CaP. To improve CaP therapy, it is necessary to identify critical coregulators of AR. We screened a HeLa cell cDNA library and identified small carboxyl-terminal domain phosphatase 2 (SCP2). SCP2 is a protein phosphatase that directly interacts with the AR NTD and represses AR activity. We demonstrated that reducing the endogenous cellular levels of SCP2 causes more AR to load on to the prostate specific antigen (PSA) gene promoter and enhancer regions. Additionally, under the same conditions, more RNA polymerase II was recruited to the PSA promoter region and overall there was an increase in androgen-dependent transcription of the PSA gene, revealing that SCP2 could play a role in the pathogenesis of CaP.

Genome-wide identification and characterization of cytochrome P450 monooxygenase genes in the ciliate Tetrahymena thermophila

Background: Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases play key roles in the metabolism of a wide variety of substrates and they are closely associated with endocellular physiological processes or detoxification metabolism under environmental exposure. To date, however, none has been systematically characterized in the phylum Ciliophora. T. thermophila possess many advantages as a eukaryotic model organism and it exhibits rapid and sensitive responses to xenobiotics, making it an ideal model system to study the evolutionary and functional diversity of the P450 monooxygenase gene family. Results: A total of 44 putative functional cytochrome P450 genes were identified and could be classified into 13 families and 21 sub-families according to standard nomenclature. The characteristics of both the conserved intron-exon organization and scaffold localization of tandem repeats within each P450 family clade suggested that the enlargement of T. thermophila P450 families probably resulted from recent separate small duplication events. Gene expression patterns of all T. thermophila P450s during three important cell physiological stages (vegetative growth, starvation and conjugation) were analyzed based on EST and microarray data, and three main categories of expression patterns were postulated. Evolutionary analysis including codon usage preference, sit-especific selection and gene-expression evolution patterns were investigated and the results indicated remarkable divergences among the T. thermophila P450 genes. Conclusion: The characterization, expression and evolutionary analysis of T. thermophila P450 monooxygenase genes in the current study provides useful information for understanding the characteristics and diversities of the P450 genes in the Ciliophora, and provides the baseline for functional analyses of individual P450 isoforms in this model ciliate species.

Novel insights into the inflammatory basis of gastrointestinal disease

It has become clear that inflammation is beneficial to man, there are situations though that the inflammatory response causes damage to the host that is harmful to health. When the inflammatory response fails or is too strong, the health of the host is damaged and disease can occur. The implication of intestinal disease caused by an ineffective immune response is of great social and economic burden to society. The overarching purpose of this thesis is to assess inflammatory signalling targets associated with immune mediated disorders such as IBD, IBS and inflammatory liver disease. By assessing these targets and modifying their function I hope to contribute and expand further the pre-existing information on these disorders and improve the therapeutic interventions available in these debilitating conditions. I will assess the role of inflammation in disorders of the GI tract and liver IBD, IBS, hepatic inflammatory injury and furthermore, I will use pharmaceutical agents to activate and suppress components of the immune system. I will examine the inflammatory response in experimental models of disease for IBD and liver injury, I will attempt to alter these pathways using pharmaceutical intervention to delineate the disease causing mechanism that may lead to clinically relevant therapeutic interventions. In regards to IBS, I will attempt to improve the existing knowledge that exists in relation to the pathogenesis of this functional bowel disorder. I will attempt to define a mechanism by which the low grade mucosal inflammation that has been demonstrated by others arises and what this inflammation is induced by. The overall aim of this thesis is to attempt to further understand the mechanisms behind GI and liver disease. Looking at the inflammatory response in these specific conditions and how they can be altered may lead to exciting new therapies for inflammatory conditions in the gastrointestinal tract.

Neuroprotection resulting from insufficiency of RANBP2 is associated with the modulation of protein and lipid homeostasis of functionally diverse but linked pathways in response to oxidative stress.

Oxidative stress is a deleterious stressor associated with a plethora of disease and aging manifestations, including neurodegenerative disorders, yet very few factors and mechanisms promoting the neuroprotection of photoreceptor and other neurons against oxidative stress are known. Insufficiency of RAN-binding protein-2 (RANBP2), a large, mosaic protein with pleiotropic functions, suppresses apoptosis of photoreceptor neurons upon aging and light-elicited oxidative stress, and promotes age-dependent tumorigenesis by mechanisms that are not well understood. Here we show that, by downregulating selective partners of RANBP2, such as RAN GTPase, UBC9 and ErbB-2 (HER2; Neu), and blunting the upregulation of a set of orphan nuclear receptors and the light-dependent accumulation of ubiquitylated substrates, light-elicited oxidative stress and Ranbp2 haploinsufficiency have a selective effect on protein homeostasis in the retina. Among the nuclear orphan receptors affected by insufficiency of RANBP2, we identified an isoform of COUP-TFI (Nr2f1) as the only receptor stably co-associating in vivo with RANBP2 and distinct isoforms of UBC9. Strikingly, most changes in proteostasis caused by insufficiency of RANBP2 in the retina are not observed in the supporting tissue, the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Instead, insufficiency of RANBP2 in the RPE prominently suppresses the light-dependent accumulation of lipophilic deposits, and it has divergent effects on the accumulation of free cholesterol and free fatty acids despite the genotype-independent increase of light-elicited oxidative stress in this tissue. Thus, the data indicate that insufficiency of RANBP2 results in the cell-type-dependent downregulation of protein and lipid homeostasis, acting on functionally interconnected pathways in response to oxidative stress. These results provide a rationale for the neuroprotection from light damage of photosensory neurons by RANBP2 insufficiency and for the identification of novel therapeutic targets and approaches promoting neuroprotection.

Nucella lapillus: imposex transcriptome analysis and phenotypic plasticity

O conhecimento de mecanismos de genómica funcional tem sido maioritariamente adquirido pela utilização de organismos modelo que são mantidos em condições laboratoriais. Contudo, estes organismos não reflectem as respostas a alterações ambientais. Por outro lado, várias espécies, ecologicamente bem estudadas, reflectem bem as interacções entre genes e ambiente mas que, das quais não existem recursos genéticos disponíveis. O imposex, caracterizado pela superimposição de caracteres sexuais masculinos em fêmeas, é induzido pelo tributilestanho (TBT) e trifenilestanho (TPT) e representa um dos melhores exemplos de disrupção endócrina com causas antropogénicas no ambiente aquático. Com o intuito de elucidar as bases moleculares deste fenómeno, procedeu-se à combinação das metodologias de pirosequenciação (sequenciação 454 da Roche) e microarrays (Agilent 4*180K) de forma a contribuir para um melhor conhecimento desta interacção gene-ambiente no gastrópode Nucella lapillus, uma espécie sentinela para imposex. O trancriptoma de N. lapillus foi sequenciado, reconstruído e anotado e posteriormente utilizado para a produção de um “array” de nucleótidos. Este array foi então utilizado para explorar níveis de expressão génica em resposta à contaminação por TBT. Os resultados obtidos confirmaram as hipóteses anteriormente propostas (esteróidica, neuroendócrina, retinóica) e adicionalmente revelou a existência de potenciais novos mecanismos envolvidos no fenómeno imposex. Evidência para alvos moleculares de disrupção endócrina não relacionados com funções reprodutoras, tais como, sistema imunitário, apoptose e supressores de tumores, foram identificados. Apesar disso, tendo em conta a forte componente reprodutiva do imposex, esta componente funcional foi a mais explorada. Assim, factores de transcrição e receptores nucleares lipofílicos, funções mitocondriais e actividade de transporte celular envolvidos na diferenciação de géneros estão na base de potenciais novos mecanismos associados ao imposex em N. lapillus. Em particular, foi identificado como estando sobre-expresso, um possível homólogo do receptor nuclear “peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma” (PPARγ), cuja função na indução de imposex foi confirmada experimentalmente in vivo após injecção dos animais com Rosiglitazone, um conhecido ligando de PPARγ em vertebrados. De uma forma geral, os resultados obtidos mostram que o fenómeno imposex é um mecanismo complexo, que possivelmente envolve a cascata de sinalização envolvendo o receptor retinoid X (RXR):PPARγ “heterodimer” que, até à data não foi descrito em invertebrados. Adicionalmente, os resultados obtidos apontam para alguma conservação de mecanismos de acção envolvidos na disrupção endócrina em invertebrados e vertebrados. Finalmente, a informação molecular produzida e as ferramentas moleculares desenvolvidas contribuem de forma significativa para um melhor conhecimento do fenómeno imposex e constituem importantes recursos para a continuação da investigação deste fenómeno e, adicionalmente, poderão vir a ser aplicadas no estudo de outras respostas a alterações ambientais usando N. lapillus como organismo modelo. Neste sentido, N. lapillus foi também utilizada para explorar a adaptação na morfologia da concha em resposta a alterações naturais induzidas por acção das ondas e pelo risco de predação por caranguejos. O contributo da componente genética, plástica e da sua interacção para a expressão fenotípica é crucial para compreender a evolução de caracteres adaptativos a ambientes heterogéneos. A contribuição destes factores na morfologia da concha de N. lapillus foi explorada recorrendo a transplantes recíprocos e experiências laboratoriais em ambiente comum (com e sem influência de predação) e complementada com análises genéticas, utilizando juvenis provenientes de locais representativos de costas expostas e abrigadas da acção das ondas. As populações estudadas são diferentes geneticamente mas possuem o mesmo cariótipo. Adicionalmente, análises morfométricas revelaram plasticidade da morfologia da concha em ambas as direcções dos transplantes recíprocos e também a retenção parcial, em ambiente comum, da forma da concha nos indivíduos da F2, indicando uma correlação positiva (co-gradiente) entre heritabilidade e plasticidade. A presença de estímulos de predação por caranguejos estimulou a produção de conchas com labros mais grossos, de forma mais evidente em animais recolhidos de costas expostas e também provocou alterações na forma da concha em animais desta proveniência. Estes dados sugerem contra-gradiente em alterações provocadas por predação na morfologia da concha, na produção de labros mais grossos e em níveis de crescimento. O estudo das interacções gene-ambiente descritas acima demonstram a actual possibilidade de produzir recursos e conhecimento genómico numa espécie bem caracterizada ecologicamente mas com limitada informação genómica. Estes recursos permitem um maior conhecimento biológico desta espécie e abrirão novas oportunidades de investigação, que até aqui seriam impossíveis de abordar.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor structures: ligand specificity, molecular switch and interactions with regulators.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) compose a family of nuclear receptors that mediate the effects of lipidic ligands at the transcriptional level. In this review, we highlight advances in the understanding of the PPAR ligand binding domain (LBD) structure at the atomic level. The overall structure of PPARs LBD is described, and important protein ligand interactions are presented. Structure-activity relationships between isotypes structures and ligand specificity are addressed. It is shown that the numerous experimental three-dimensional structures available, together with in silico simulations, help understanding the role played by the activating function-2 (AF-2) in PPARs activation and its underlying molecular mechanism. The relation between the PPARs constitutive activity and the intrinsic stability of the active conformation is discussed. Finally, the interactions of PPARs LBD with co-activators or co-repressors, as well as with the retinoid X receptor (RXR) are described and considered in relation to PPARs activation.

NR2E3 mutations in enhanced S-cone sensitivity syndrome (ESCS), Goldmann-Favre syndrome (GFS), clumped pigmentary retinal degeneration (CPRD), and retinitis pigmentosa (RP).

NR2E3, also called photoreceptor-specific nuclear receptor (PNR), is a transcription factor of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily whose expression is uniquely restricted to photoreceptors. There, its physiological activity is essential for proper rod and cone photoreceptor development and maintenance. Thirty-two different mutations in NR2E3 have been identified in either homozygous or compound heterozygous state in the recessively inherited enhanced S-cone sensitivity syndrome (ESCS), Goldmann-Favre syndrome (GFS), and clumped pigmentary retinal degeneration (CPRD). The clinical phenotype common to all these patients is night blindness, rudimental or absent rod function, and hyperfunction of the "blue" S-cones. A single p.G56R mutation is inherited in a dominant manner and causes retinitis pigmentosa (RP). We have established a new locus-specific database for NR2E3 (www.LOVD.nl/eye), containing all reported mutations, polymorphisms, and unclassified sequence variants, including novel ones. A high proportion of mutations are located in the evolutionarily-conserved DNA-binding domains (DBDs) and ligand-binding domains (LBDs) of NR2E3. Based on homology modeling of these NR2E3 domains, we propose a structural localization of mutated residues. The high variability of clinical phenotypes observed in patients affected by NR2E3-linked retinal degenerations may be caused by different disease mechanisms, including absence of DNA-binding, altered interactions with transcriptional coregulators, and differential activity of modifier genes.

Mutations in NR2E3 can cause dominant or recessive retinal degenerations in the same family.

NR2E3, a photoreceptor-specific nuclear receptor (PNR), represses cone-specific genes and activates several rod-specific genes. In humans, mutations in NR2E3 have been associated with the recessively-inherited enhanced short-wavelength sensitive S-cone syndrome (ESCS) and, recently, with autosomal dominant (ad) retinitis pigmentosa (RP) (adRP). In the present work, we describe two additional families affected by adRP that carry a heterozygous c.166G>A (p.G56R) mutation in the NR2E3 gene. Functional analysis determined the dominant negative activity of the p.G56R mutant protein as the molecular mechanism of adRP. Interestingly, in one pedigree, the most common causal variant for ESCS (p.R311Q) cosegregated with the adRP-linked p.G56R mutation, and the compound heterozygotes exhibited an ESCS-like phenotype, which in 1 of the 2 cases was strikingly "milder" than the patients carrying the p.G56R mutation alone. Impaired repression of cone-specific genes by the corepressors atrophin-1 (dentatorubral-pallidoluysian atrophy [DRPLA] gene product) and atrophin-2 (arginine-glutamic acid dipeptide repeat [RERE] protein) appeared to be a molecular mechanism mediating the beneficial effect of the p.R311Q mutation. Finally, the functional dominance of the p.R311Q variant to the p.G56R mutation is discussed.

Identification and characterization of retinoic acid-induced morphological and electrophysiological changes in an invertebrate nervous system

The vitamin A metabolite, retinoic acid (RA) is known to play an important role in the development, patterning and regeneration of nervous tissue, both in the embryo and in the adult. Classically, RA is known to mediate the transcription of target genes through the binding and activation ofits nuclear receptors: the retinoic acid receptors (RARs) and retinoid X receptors (RXRs). Recently, mounting evidence from many animal models has implicated a number of RA-mediated effects operating independently of gene transcription, and thus highlights nove~ nongenornic actions of RA. For example, recent work utilizing cultured neurons from the pond snaa Lymnaea stagnalis, has shown that RA can elicit a regenerative response, growth cone turning, independently of "classical" transcriptional activation While this work illustrates a novel regeneration-inducing effect in culture, it is currently -unknown whether RA also induces regeneration in situ. This study has sought to determine RA's regenerative effucts at the morphological and molecular levels by utilizing an in situ approach focusing on a single identified dopaminergic neuron which possesses a known "mapped" morphology within the CNS. These studies show, for the first time in an invertebrate, that RA can increase neurite outgrowth of dopaminergic cells that have undergone a nerve-crush injury. Utilizing Western blot analysis, it was shown that this effect appears to be independent of any changes in whole CNS expression levels of either the RAR or RXR. Additionally, utilizing immunohistochemistry, to examine protein localization, there does not appear to be any obvious changes in the RXR expression level at the crush site. Changes in cell morphology such as neurity extension are known to be modulated by changes in neuronal firing activity. It has been previously shown that exposure to RA over many days can lead to changes in the electrophysiological properties of cultured Lymnaea neurons; however, no studies have investigated whether short-term exposure to RA can elicit electrophysiological changes and/or changes in firing pattern of neurons in Lymnaea or any other species. The studies performed here show, for the first time in any species, that short-tenn treatment with RA can elicit significant changes in the firing properties of both identified dopaminergic neurons and peptidergic neurons. This effect appears to be independent of protein synthesis, activation of protein kinase A or phospholipase C, and calcium influx but is both dose-dependent and isomer-dependent. These studies provide evidence that the RXR, but not RAR, may be involved, and that intracellular calcium concentrations decrease upon RAexposure with a time course, dose-dependency and isomer-dependency that coincide with the RA-induced electrophysiological changes. Taken together, these studies provide important evidence highlighting RA as a multifunctional molecule, inducing morphological, molecular and electrophysiological changes within the CNS, and highlight the many pathways through which RA may operate to elicit its effects.

Elucidation of the Retinoid Signalling Pathway Involved in Axon Guidance in Lymnaea stagnalis and Xenopus laevis

The vitamin A metabolite, retinoic acid (RA), is known to play a crucial role in several developmental processes including axial patterning and differentiation. More recently, RA has been implicated in the regenerative process acting through its classical signaling pathway, the nuclear receptors, retinoic acid receptor (RAR) and retinoid X receptor (RXR), to mediate gene transcription. Moreover, RA has been shown to act as a guidance molecule for growth cones of regenerating motorneurons of the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis. Our lab has recently shown that RA can induce this morphological response independent of nuclear transcription, however, the role of the retinoid receptors in RA-induced chemoattraction is still unknown. Here, I show that the retinoid receptors, RXR and RAR, may mediate the growth cones response to the metabolically active retinoic acid isomers, all-trans and 9-cis RA, in Lymnaea stagnalis. Data presented here show that both an RXR and RAR antagonist can block growth cone turning in response to application of both isomers. Because no prior investigations have shown growth cone turning of individual vertebrate neurons, I aimed to show that both retinoic acid isomers were capable of inducing growth cone turning of embryonic spinal cord neurons in the frog, Xenopus laevis. For the first time in Xenopus, I showed that both all-trans and 9-cis RA were able to induce significantly more neurite outgrowth from cultured embryonic spinal cord neurons and induce positive growth cone turning of individual growth cones. In addition, I showed that the presence of the RXR antagonist, HX531, blocked 9-cis RA-induced growth cone turning and the RARβ antagonist, LE135, blocked all-trans RA-induced growth cone turning in this species. Evidence provided here shows for the first time, conservation of retinoic acid-induced growth cone turning in a vertebrate model system. In addition, these data show that the receptors involved in this morphological response may be the same in vertebrates and invertebrates.

Modulation de l’expression du gène CFTR par le produit du gène FIC1 responsable de la cholestase familiale intra-hépatique progressive de type 1 : Identification des mécanismes moléculaires impliqués

Réalisé en cotutelle avec l'Université de Cergy-Pontoise

Interactions protéiques et relation dynamique entre phosphorylation / sumoylation / ubiquitination des protéines TIF1α, β et PML: détection in vivo par BRET

Trois protéines de la famille TRIM (Motif TRIpartite), TIF1α, β (Transcriptional Intermediary Factor 1) et PML (ProMyelocytic Leukaemia¬), font l’objet de cette étude. TIF1α est connu comme un coactivateur des récepteurs nucléaires et TIF1β comme le corépresseur universel des protéines KRAB-multidoigt de zinc dont le prototype étudié ici est ZNF74. PML possède divers rôles dont le plus caractérisé est celui d’être l’organisateur principal et essentiel des PML-NBs (PML-Nuclear Bodies), des macrostructures nucléaires très dynamiques regroupant et coordonnant plus de 40 protéines. Il est à noter que la fonction de TIF1α, β et PML est régulée par une modification post-traductionnelle, la sumoylation, qui implique le couplage covalent de la petite protéine SUMO (Small Ubiquitin like MOdifier) à des lysines de ces trois protéines cibles. Cette thèse propose de développer des méthodes utilisant le BRET (Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfert) afin de détecter dans des cellules vivantes et en temps réel des interactions non-covalentes de protéines nucléaires mais aussi leur couplage covalent à SUMO. En effet, le BRET n’a jamais été exploré jusqu’alors pour étudier les interactions non-covalentes et covalentes de protéines nucléaires. L’étude de l’interaction de protéines transcriptionnellement actives est parfois difficile par des méthodes classiques du fait de leur grande propension à agréger (famille TRIM) ou de leur association à la matrice nucléaire (ZNF74). L’homo et l’hétérodimérisation de TIF1α, β ainsi que leur interaction avec ZNF74 sont ici testées sur des protéines entières dans des cellules vivantes de mammifères répondant aux résultats conflictuels de la littérature et démontrant que le BRET peut être avantageusement utilisé comme alternative aux essais plus classiques basés sur la transcription. Du fait de l’hétérodimérisation confirmée de TIF1α et β, le premier article présenté ouvre la possibilité d’une relation étroite entre les récepteurs nucléaires et les protéines KRAB- multidoigt de zinc. Des études précédentes ont démontré que la sumoylation de PML est impliquée dans sa dégradation induite par l’As2O3 et dépendante de RNF4, une E3 ubiquitine ligase ayant pour substrat des chaînes de SUMO (polySUMO). Dans le second article, grâce au développement d’une nouvelle application du BRET pour la détection d’interactions covalentes et non-covalentes avec SUMO (BRETSUMO), nous établissons un nouveau lien entre la sumoylation de PML et sa dégradation. Nous confirmons que le recrutement de RNF4 dépend de SUMO mais démontrons également l’implication du SBD (Sumo Binding Domain) de PML dans sa dégradation induite par l’As2O3 et/ou RNF4. De plus, nous démontrons que des sérines, au sein du SBD de PML, qui sont connues comme des cibles de phosphorylation par la voie de la kinase CK2, régulent les interactions non-covalentes de ce SBD mettant en évidence, pour la première fois, que les interactions avec un SBD peuvent dépendre d’un évènement de phosphorylation (“SBD phospho-switch”). Nos résultats nous amènent à proposer l’hypothèse que le recrutement de PML sumoylé au niveau des PML-NBs via son SBD, favorise le recrutement d’une autre activité E3 ubiquitine ligase, outre celle de RNF4, PML étant lui-même un potentiel candidat. Ceci suggère l’existence d’une nouvelle relation dynamique entre phosphorylation, sumoylation et ubiquitination de PML. Finalement, il est suggéré que PML est dégradé par deux voies différentes dépendantes de l’ubiquitine et du protéasome; la voie de CK2 et la voie de RNF4. Enfin une étude sur la sumoylation de TIF1β est également présentée en annexe. Cette étude caractérise les 6 lysines cibles de SUMO sur TIF1β et démontre que la sumoylation est nécessaire à l’activité répressive de TIF1β mais n’est pas impliquée dans son homodimérisation ou son interaction avec la boîte KRAB. La sumoylation est cependant nécessaire au recrutement d’histones déacétylases, dépendante de son homodimérisation et de l’intégrité du domaine PHD. Alors que l’on ne connaît pas de régulateur physiologique de la sumoylation outre les enzymes directement impliquées dans la machinerie de sumoylation, nous mettons en évidence que la sumoylation de TIF1β est positivement régulée par son interaction avec le domaine KRAB et suggérons que ces facteurs transcriptionnels recrutent TIF1β à l’ADN au niveau de promoteur et augmentent son activité répressive en favorisant sa sumoylation.

Régulation de l'activité transcriptionnelle du récepteur nucléaire FXR par la ghréline et les modifications post-traductionnelles

Le récepteur X des farnésoïdes (FXR) fait partie de la superfamille des récepteurs nucléaires et agit comme un facteur de transcription suite à la liaison d’un ligand spécifique. Le récepteur FXR, activé par les acides biliaires, joue un rôle essentiel dans le métabolisme des lipides et du glucose en plus de réguler l’homéostasie des acides biliaires. Notre laboratoire a récemment mis en évidence une nouvelle voie de régulation du récepteur PPARγ en réponse au récepteur de la ghréline. En effet, la ghréline induit l’activation transcriptionnelle de PPARγ via une cascade de signalisation impliquant les kinases Erk1/2 et Akt, supportant un rôle périphérique de la ghréline dans les pathologies associées au syndrome métabolique. Il est de plus en plus reconnu que la cascade métabolique impliquant PPARγ fait également intervenir un autre récepteur nucléaire, FXR. Dans ce travail, nous montrons que la ghréline induit l’activation transcriptionnelle de FXR de manière dose-dépendante et induit également la phosphorylation du récepteur sur ses résidus sérine. En utilisant des constructions tronquées ABC et CDEF de FXR, nous avons démontré que la ghréline régule l’activité de FXR via les domaines d’activation AF-1 et AF-2. L’effet de la ghréline et du ligand sélectif GW4064 sur l’induction de FXR est additif. De plus, nous avons démontré que FXR est la cible d’une autre modification post-traductionnelle, soit la sumoylation. En effet, FXR est un substrat cellulaire des protéines SUMO-1 et SUMO-3 et la sumoylation du récepteur est ligand-indépendante. SUMO-1 et SUMO-3 induisent l’activation transcriptionnelle de FXR de façon dose-dépendante. Nos résultats indiquent que la lysine 122 est le site prédominant de sumoylation par SUMO-1, quoiqu’un mécanisme de coopération semble exister entre les différents sites de sumoylation de FXR. Avec son rôle émergeant dans plusieurs voies du métabolisme lipidique, l’identification de modulateurs de FXR s’avère être une approche fort prometteuse pour faire face à plusieurs pathologies associées au syndrome métabolique et au diabète de type 2.

Rôle de la synthèse de l'acide rétinoïque dans le contrôle de la prolifération et de la différenciation des cellules épithéliales mammaires

L’acide rétinoïque (AR) est le ligand des récepteurs nucléaires RAR et RXR qui agissent comme facteurs de transcription ligand-inductibles et médient ses effets biologiques. Il est connu que l’AR a des propriétés prodifférenciatrices et antiprolifératives, notamment sur les cellules de l’épithélium mammaire. Une perte de sensibilité de l’AR a toutefois été mise en évidence dans plusieurs lignées cellulaires mammaires cancéreuses, ce qui pourrait faciliter la croissance des tumeurs. Or jusqu’ici cette perte de sensibilité avait été attribuée à des défauts de la voie de signalisation de l’AR, causée par la perte de l’expression des récepteurs à l’AR dans la tumeur, bien que plusieurs lignées de cellules cancéreuses y soient tout de même très sensibles. Peu d’études se sont intéressées au rôle de la voie de synthèse de l’AR dans la transformation des cellules mammaires. En effet, l’AR est synthétisé à partir de la vitamine A, ou rétinol, son précurseur sanguin provenant de la diète. Les cellules de l’épithélium mammaire normales ont la capacité de synthétiser l’AR à partir du rétinol. Nos rapportons pour la première fois que l’épithélium mammaire est probablement le siège de la synthèse et de la signalisation de l’AR. Cela est dû, au moins en partie, à l’expression d’une enzyme de synthèse de l’AR, RALDH3, dans l’épithélium mammaire normal. Dans cette étude, nous démontrons que les cellules cancéreuses de type luminal, qui ont sensibles à l’AR (et qui expriment le récepteur des estrogènes ER, catégorie qui regroupe 75 % des tumeurs diagnostiquées) n’ont au contraire pas la capacité de sythétiser l’AR, probablement en raison d’une faible expression de RALDH3 dans les tumeurs, sous l’effet des estrogènes. Cela pourrait représenter un nouveau mécanisme favorisant la croissance des tumeurs luminales dont les cellules proliférent en présence du rétinol sanguin. RALDH1, une autre enzyme de la voie de synthèse de l’AR, et qui partage 70 % d’identité de séquence avec RALDH3, est un marqueur de tumeurs plus agressives et de la formation de métastase. Nous montrons au contraire, que RALDH3 est un marqueur d’une moindre probabilité de développer des métastases chez les patientes atteintes d’une tumeur luminale. Cela suggère des rôles different pour ces deux enzymes dans la glande mammaire. Nos résultats indiquent que RALDH1 et 3 ont des propriétés enzymatiques très différentes, ce qui est en accord avec cette dernière hypothèse. Nos données suggèrent aussi que RALDH1 et 3 pourraient être des marqueurs de populations distinctes de cellules dans la glande mammaire normale. Nous proposons d’exploiter les diffèrences entre RALDH1 et 3 afin de mettre au point des méthodes de séparation des différentes population de cellules de l’épithélium mammaire ce qui pourrait aider à comprendre le rôle de la synthèse d’AR dans ce tissu.