Luottamuksen ilmeneminen alueellisissa yhteistyöverkostoissa

Appearance of trust in regional, co-operative networks In our times, the value of social networks has been widely acknowledged. One can say that it is important for private persons to get networked, whilst it is even a must for companies and organizations in business life. This doctor's thesis examines three co-operative regional networks. Networks are located in Western Uusimaa (Länsi-Uusimaa) region in southernmost Finland, and they had both public organizations and private companies as participants (later called ‘players’). Initially, all of them were co-financed from public funds, and two of them are still operational while writing this. The main target of these networks has been to act as learning networks. The learning network stands for an ensemble of research and development units and workplaces constituting a common forum for learning. The main focus in this study has been on qualitative and structural characteristics of the networks, and how they are relating with intrinsic trust. In addition to the development of trust, it has been studied, at what level organizational learning within the networks takes place, and lastly, what kind of factors facilitate the development of social capital. The theoretical framework for the study is built on analysing trust and social capital. It is a 'mission impossible' to find single definitions for such major concepts. In this study, from the research questions' point of view it has been more relevant to concentrate on the aspects of networking and the relationships between the participating organizations. The total view in this study is very network-centric, and therefore those theories which have similar point of view have been prioritized. Such is the theory about structural holes by Ronald S. Burt (1992). It has been widely applied; especially his views on constraints affecting players in networks. The purpose of this study has not been to create new theories or to analyse and compare thoroughly the existing theoretical trends. Instead, the existing theories have provided the study with conceptual tools, which have been utilized for supporting the empirical results. The aim has been to create an explanatory case study consisting relevant discussion on the relationship between the network characteristics and the appearance of trust. The conceptual categorization for confidence vs. trust created by Niklas Luhmann (1979) is another important theoretical building block. In most cases, co-operation in networks is initiated by people already trusting in each other and willing to work together. However, personal trust is not sufficient in the long run to sustain the co-operation within the network: more abstract systemic trust described by Luhmann must also emerge. In the networks with different structures and at different development phases, these forms of trust appear at different levels. In this study, Luhmann’s systemic trust as a term has been replaced by the concept of 'trust in network as a system'. Structural characteristics of a network (density, centrality, structural holes etc.) have been selected to explain the creation of social capital and trust. The ability to adapt new information is essential for the development of social capital. Qualitative analysis for development phase has been used, and the Learning Network Maturity Test by Leenamaija Otala (2000) and her work have been applied. Thus, the qualitative characteristics and the structural characteristics of the networks are utilized together, when the creation of social capital and appearance of trust are assessed. Social Network Analysis, questionnaires and interviews have been the research methods. Quantitative and qualitative data have been combined. There is a similarity in viewpoints to research data with Extensive Case Study method, in which different cases are searched by exploring various cases and comparing certain common features between them and generic models. Development of trust, social capital and organizational learning has been explained in the study by comparing the networks in hand. Being a case study, it doesn't have targets to provide with general results and findings like conventional surveys. However, in this work phenomena and mechanisms related to them are interpreted from the empirical data. Key finding of this study is that the networks with high structural equality and clear target setting enable building trust to the network as a system. When systemic trust is present, e.g. changes in personnel involved in the co-operation won't hinder the network from remaining operational. On the other hand, if the players are not well motivated to co-operate, if the network is extremely centralized structurally, or if the network has players holding very much more beneficial position compared to the others, systemic trust won't develop: trust tends to remain at the personal level, and is directed to some players only. Such networks won't generate results and benefits to its players, and most probably they won’t live very long. In other words, learning networks cannot solely be based on willingness to learn, but also on willingness to co-operate.

Hvordan øve hellige handlinger? : en profesjonsdidaktisk studie av øving av muntlige ferdigheter innenfor en norsk presteutdanning

How can the holy craft of liturgy be trained? A study of approaches to instruction in training oral skills within education of the Norwegian clergy The theme of this study is the competence of expression of clerics performing liturgies as part of their duties in the Norwegian Lutheran Church. The aim of the study is to find a teaching practice which can raise the competence in oral expression characteristic of the clergy profession. The teaching practice is explored and discussed within the context of the basic education of the clergy. The main thesis is formulated as a question: How can the holy craft of liturgy be trained? An underpinning of the study is that liturgical acts are holy, which gives these performances an aspect of otherness. This otherness constitutes a clear agreement between the students and the teacher, and between the professional and the employer. The pre-understanding of the researcher is that these liturgical oral acts are trainable, and that there is a need and a necessity to train in these skills. Three research questions are elaborated on in the explorative section of the study: • What is characteristic of a competence of expression connected to the profession? • How can this competence of expression connected to liturgical performance be developed? • What is the importance of this competence in the holy craft of liturgy for the development of a cohesive professional self-understanding? The study is based on a research and development project where the researcher as the teacher and students from one specific clergy education in Norway (MF) were the source of the empirical material. The empirical data came from practice with two external observers› logs on the coaching, video observations, of the teacher and the students› texts on the practice under study, which is liturgical performance. The researcher›s log and field notes also provide material for the analysis. This is a qualitative project and an arts education project carried out within an interpretative framework. The theoretical framework has three perspectives: a structural approach based on the system theory of Niklas Luhmann, an epistemological approach discussing forms of knowledge in practice or informing practice and an arts education approach. The results indicate that the competence in oral liturgical performance can be considered a trainable skill, and that this training can be understood as an arts education method of instruction based on meaningful communication, dramaturgical thinking and the development of authenticity. The main result from this study can be considered as articulating and sketching the contours of the field of knowledge where the students embody the meaning of the clergy profession ‒ and this articulation has an innovative potential as knowledge combining experience and theoretical understanding.

Social movements and environmentalism, a Luhmannian view

Depuis les années cinquante la sociologie a été concernée par le phénomène des mouvements sociaux. Diverses théories ont essayé de les expliquer. Du collective behaviour à la mobilisation des ressources, par l`entremise de processus politiques, et de la perspective de framing jusqu'à la théorie des nouveaux mouvements sociaux, la sociologie a trouvé certains moyens pour expliquer ces phénomènes. Bien que toutes ces perspectives couvrent et saisissent des facettes importantes des angles de l'action collective, ils le font de manière disparate, en regardant un côté et en omettant l'autre. Les différences entre les points de vue proviennent, d'une part, d'un changement dans les contextes sociaux, historiques et scientifiques, et d'autre part du fait que les différentes approches ne posent pas les mêmes questions, même si certaines questions se chevauchent. Poser des questions différentes amène à considérer des aspects différents. En conséquence, ce n'est pas seulement une question de donner une réponse différente à la même question, mais aussi une question de regarder le même objet d'étude, à partir d'un angle différent. Cette situation réside à la base de la première partie de ma thèse principale: le champ de la théorie des mouvements sociaux n'est pas suffisant, ni suffisamment intégré pour expliquer l'action collective et nous avons besoin d'une théorie plus complète afin d'obtenir une meilleure compréhension des mouvements et la façon dont ils remplissent leur rôle de précurseurs de changement dans la société. Par conséquent, je considère que nous avons besoin d'une théorie qui est en mesure d'examiner tous les aspects des mouvements en même temps et, en outre, est capable de regarder au-delà de la forme de l'objet d’étude afin de se concentrer sur l'objet lui-même. Cela m'amène à la deuxième partie de l'argument, qui est l'affirmation selon laquelle la théorie générale des systèmes telle que formulée par Niklas Luhmann peut contribuer à une meilleure compréhension de l'action collective. Il s'agit d'une théorie intégrale qui peut compléter le domaine de la théorie de l`action collective en nous fournissant les outils nécessaires pour rechercher dynamiquement les mouvements sociaux et de les comprendre dans le contexte social en perpétuel changement. Une analyse du mouvement environnementaliste sera utilisé pour montrer comment les outils fournis par cette théorie nous permettent de mieux comprendre non seulement les mouvements sociaux, mais également le contexte dans lequel ils fonctionnent, comment ils remplissent leur rôle, comment ils évoluent et comment ils changent aussi la société.

La perspectiva sistémica en Sociología : Parsons y Luhmann.

Con este trabajo se pretende analizar si las teorías de Parsons y Luhmann, implicadas en el debate entre individualistas metodológicos y colectivistas, dan cuenta acertadamente de la acción social, es decir, del funcionamiento de la sociedad y del individuo que la genera. Esta investigación se estructura en los siguientes capítulos: 1. Individualismo metodológico versus colectivismo. 2. La teoría de sistemas: aplicación en Sociología. 3. El sistemismo en las teorías de Parsons y Luhmann. 4. Del funcionalismo a la teoría de sistemas: el esquema ágil de T. Parsons. 5. La teoría del sujeto en Parsons. 6. N. Luhmann: la complejidad del sistema. 1. Tanto Parsons como Luhmann mantienen una perspectiva sistémica en lo que se refiere al estudio de las sociedades, perspectiva que si bien se debe a su enfoque funcionalista, no se limita a éste, ya que ambos autores les dan a los elementos funcionalistas que toman un giro personal. Es más, en el caso de Parsons, la perspectiva sistémica que adopta va más allá del funcionalismo cuando en su última época analiza el cambio y la evolución en los sistemas sociales. Ambos autores elaboran una teoría de largo alcance que intenta dar explicaciones globales de los sistemas sociales y culturales. Para elaborar tales explicaciones, ambos autores defienden un enfoque interdisciplinar, que es sumamente interesante y fructuoso en las Ciencias Sociales. Las críticas más frecuentes que se les hacen a estas teorías son su generalidad y abstracción, su olvido de las discontinuidades a la hora de tratar el cambio social. Desde nuestro punto de vista, nos parece que el enfoque interdisciplinar ha olvidado algunas disciplinas fundamentales (en el caso de Parsons) o ha tomado algunas innecesarias (Luhmann), así como que utilizan un modelo de sujeto individual incompleto, y un concepto de sistema de acción erróneo. Al hilo de nuestras críticas exponemos el perfil de una alternativa que, en nuestra opinión, se ve libre de las limitaciones que estas teorías presentan. Esta alternativa es fruto del trabajo del grupo constituido en el Departamento de Lógica y Filosofía de la Ciencia de la Universidad de La Laguna.

Responsabilidad penal de las personas jurídicas desde la teoría de sistemas

La orientación de las nuevas sociedades vistas como espacio articulados alrededor de los grandes desarrollos tecnológicos y la primacía de las comunicaciones en devenir de los actores, ha llevado a que las distintas disciplinas se aclimaten a dicho panorama universal. A ello no puede ser extraño el derecho, pues su funcionalidad le obliga a reconstituirse dentro de las lógicas y dinámicas que orientan al desarrollo de la historia. Sin embargo, dicho proceso se enfrenta en ocasiones a aquellos paradigmas que, por sus connotación, causan tensiones frente a las nociones de progreso y orden social. En el plano del derecho penal económico, dicho escenario conflictivo se visibiliza mejor cuando la posibilidad de incriminar a las personas jurídicas se presenta. Así, la recurrencia a principios por los que la comisión de un hecho delictivo solo puede ser verificada por la persona natural trastoca la necesidad de orientar las conductas delictivas hacia la imputación de la empresa y los diversos entes colectivos que articulan las relaciones entre Estado, mercado y sociedad. De allí que el presente estudio ofrezca una posición teórica a partir de la cual se podría sustentar la atribución de responsabilidad penal a las personas jurídicas, a al vez que cuestiona la vigencia de algunos de los paradigmas hallados en la teoría del sujeto penal y del delito. De esta forma, la recurrencia a la teoría de los sistemas de Niklas Luhmann y el afianzamiento de las comunicaciones como el centro de atención de las sociedades, desde una perspectiva jurídica y sociológica, marcarán el hilo conductor de una discusión inacabada y que se presta para el debate desde diferentes ópticas.

La responsabilidad penal de las personas jurídicas en el marco de la legislación de los países de la Comunidad Andina de Naciones

El propósito fundamental del presente trabajo investigativo constituye entregar una visión holística e innovadora respecto a un tema de álgida discusión dentro del derecho penal contemporáneo : la atribución de responsabilidad penal a las personas jurídicas. En tal ámbito de análisis, la orientación sistèmica asumida por el autor a lo largo de la argumentación altera en buena medida los elementos dogmáticos de la teoría del delito - la acción y la culpabilidad - que son los ejes de articulación de un derecho penal antropocéntrico, limitado a la incriminación punible del ser humano. Bajo una entrada teórica que sigue la fundamentación de Niklas Luhmann - y la teoría de la sociedad sin hombres - se pretende demostrar còmo el progreso y dinámica de las sociedades contemporáneas ha establecido un nuevo centro de interacción y eje del análisis social, el que traslada al ser humano hacia posiciones menos estelares. Para Luhmann, comunicaciones y solo comunicaciones conforman el entorno alrededor del que se reproducen y describen los diferentes subsistemas sociales (v.g. económico, político administrativo, jurídico, cultural, etc.) siendo por tanto aquéllas - las comunicaciones - los centros de imputación, en este caso en materia criminal, cuando de la comisión de hechos delictivos se trata. Declarar la responsabilidad penal por el cometimiento de conductas ilícitas prescindiendo de la noción del acto humano consciente y voluntario y trasladar dicho ejercicio de respuesta estatal a las comunicaciones dañosas que alteran el proceso de autoreproducciòn y autoobservaciòn de los diferentes subsistemas sociales, y del jurídico en especial, permite elaborar una construcción teórica en la que las personas jurídicas, o las comunicaciones que de estas emanan, pueden ser factibles del juicio de atribuibilidad y por tanto sujetas a penas que, a la vez que afianzan el orden social destruyen paradigmas clásicos del derecho penal como el societas delinquere non potest, siempre invocado por los defensores del inmovilismo.

The sociology of childhood as scientific communication - Observations from a social systems perspective

This article begins by identifying a close relationship between the image of children generated by several sociologists working within the new sociology of childhood perspective and the claims and ambitions of the proponents of children's autonomy rights. The image of the child as a competent, self-controlled human agent are then subjected to observation from the perspective of Niklas Luhmann's social systems theory. The new sociology of childhood's constructivist approach is compared and contrasted with Niklas Luhmann's theory of 'operational constructivism'. The article applies tenets of Luhmann's theory, to the emergence of the new childhood sociologist's image of the child as a competent, self-controlled social agent, to the epistemological status of this image and, in particular, to claims that it derives from scientific endeavour. The article proceeds to identify two theoretical developments within sociology - sociology of identity and social agency - which have brought about fundamental changes in what may be considered 'sociological' and so 'scientific' and paved the way for sociological communications about what children,really are'. In conclusion, it argues that the merging of sociology with polemics, ideology, opinion and personal beliefs and, at the level of social systems, between science and politics represents in Luhmann's terms 'dedifferentiation'- a tendency he claims may have serious adverse consequences for modern society. This warning is applied to the scientific status of sociology - its claim to be able to produce 'facts' for society, upon which social systems, such as politics and law, may rely. Like the mass media, sociology may now be capable of producing only information, and not facts, about children.

Re-conceptualising public participation in spatial planning: a view through autopoiesis

This article examines the relevance of the concept of autopoiesis for public participation in spatial planning. The concept of autopoiesis within social science, as advanced by Niklas Luhmann (1995) argues for a systemic, consistent and sophisticated theory of society based on a systems view, as opposed to more familiar action-based theories (for instance as in the case of the Habermasian tradition). By examining the relevance of the concept for public participation in spatial planning, this article highlights specific aspects of public participation that draw attention to dimensions of planning that are not currently explicitly highlighted within mainstream discourses in planning

O processo de institucionalização da participação na Câmara Municipal de São Paulo : uma análise das audiências públicas do orçamento (1990-2010)

Este estudo tem como objetivo analisar o processo de institucionalização da participação da sociedade civil na Câmara Municipal de São Paulo através de uma análise das audiências públicas do orçamento de 1990 a 2010. Levando em consideração o amplo debate sobre os limites da democracia representativa e a importância da participação da sociedade civil em suprir um suposto déficit democrático, este estudo analisa a participação da sociedade civil como parte e não como substituto de uma democracia representativa. Em termos de metodologia, trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa que visa enfatizar as características das entidades, dos processos e significados, usando os sentidos dados pelos atores sociais a fim de entender como a participação como experiência social é criada e seus sentidos produzidos. Utilizou-se a técnica de estudo de caso – amplamente adotada para a investigação de tópicos ainda pouco analisados, como é o caso da participação da sociedade civil no Legislativo –, incorporando-se elementos da técnica de estudo de campo longitudinal. Do ponto de vista teórico, esta tese foi guiada pelo institucionalismo na teoria das organizações, com ênfase nas suas microfundações, enfatizando as explicações culturais e cognitivas, muito ricas para o entendimento do fenômeno da participação. Na análise dos diferentes atores envolvidos no processo de institucionalização e suas diferentes lógicas de participação, as contribuições da teoria de sistemas autopoiéticos de Niklas Luhmann foram fundamentais, sendo possível identificar quatro subsistemas: poder legislativo, poder executivo, sociedade civil e burocracia da Câmara Municipal. A dinâmica dos diferentes subsistemas ao longo dos vinte anos de análise permite observar um conjunto de variáveis regulativas, normativas e cultural-cognitivas que influenciam o processo de institucionalização da participação. O estudo conclui que, apesar de institucionalizada, a participação na Câmara Municipal encontra obstáculos para ser exercida na prática, devido a limitações normativas e cultural-cognitivas que perpassam os diferentes subsistemas, principalmente o Poder Legislativo. Há dificuldade em institucionalizar a participação na Câmara Municipal de São Paulo, e isso ocorre porque os vereadores fazem parte de um subsistema autopoiético com valores e normas próprias e que dificulta a entrada do subsistema sociedade civil, que busca participar da discussão do orçamento. Existe certa abertura à participação, mas esta é moldada conforme padrões de conduta já existentes na interação entre parlamentar e sociedade civil, marcada por um forte clientelismo, sedimentando o que este estudo denomina de clientelismo orçamentário, uma participação voltada para o atendimento de demandas pontuais da sociedade civil que se realizam através de emendas, e não por uma participação voltada à discussão de políticas públicas e de um verdadeiro controle social do orçamento público.

Comunicação midiática nas (arqui)dioceses do Brasil: possibilidades para ser igreja virtual

Pós-graduação em Comunicação - FAAC