Desenvolvimento e validação de métodos bioanalíticos para o monitoramento dos produtos das vias metabólicas do triptofano em linhagem celular de glioma humano

O metabolismo do triptofano (Trp) se dá pela via das quinureninas (QUIN), pela via serotoninérgica (SER) e pela via das aminas traço. A primeira gera QUIN e uma variedade de outros metabólitos secundários. Quando conduzida pela enzima indolamina 2,3 dioxigenase (IDO) contribui para os fenômenos de tolerância e imune escape de células tumorais; e quando conduzida pela triptofano 2,3 dioxigenase (TDO) no fígado, participa na síntese da niacina e NAD. A via SER leva à formação do neurotransmissor serotonina (SER), que pode gerar o hormônio melatonina (MEL), respectivamente e outros metabólitos biologicamente ativos. Outra via menos estudada, a via das aminas traço, produz produtos neuroativos. Dada a abrangência e importância das rotas metabólicas do Trp, nós desenvolvemos e validamos uma metodologia bioanalítica robusta, seletiva e sensível por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC), acoplado espectrometria de massas (MS) para a determinação simultânea do Trp e seus 15 metabólitos. Para tanto, escolhemos para a avaliação das três vias, linhagens de glioma humano. A escolha por este tipo celular deveu-se ao grande interesse de estudos de metabolismo de Trp em células tumorais, no qual células de glioma tem sido modelo. Nos ensaios com as células de glioma acompanhamos os efeitos de um indutor e inibidores da primeira etapa de metabolização do Trp pela via das quinureninas, ou seja, IFN-γ (indutor da IDO), 1-metiltriptofano (1-MT; inibidor competitivo da IDO) e 680C91 (inibidor seletivo da TDO). Pudemos observar o impacto que a indução ou a inibição do primeiro passo teve sobre os metabólitos subsequentes e as diferenças no metabolismo das duas linhagens estudadas, A172 e T98G. A linhagem T98G só tem atividade de IDO, enquanto que a A172 tem tanto atividade IDO quanto TDO. A indução por IFN-γ mostrou que essa citocina não só atua na formação da via QUIN, mas possui um impacto modesto nas demais rotas. Observamos também que a inibição do 1-MT mostrou seu impacto nos metabólitos invdividualmente, do que a simples relação Trp-QUIN. Contudo, nosso resultados nos permitiu mostrar pela primeira vez a descrição completa dessas vias, em especial nessas linhagens celulares, podendo supor estratégias terapêuticas nessas rotas que estão relacionadas a progressão ou não tumoral.

Expression of apoptotic regulatory molecules in renal cell carcinoma: Elevated expression of Fas ligand

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common renal neoplasm. Despite being infiltrated by tumour infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL), these TIL are unable to control tumour growth in vivo, suggesting that the cytotoxic capacity of TIL against RCC is impaired, or that the tumour cells are resistant to killing and therefore escape detection by the immune system. It is postulated that the expression of apoptotic regulatory molecules in RCC favours tumour cell survival. The present study has therefore determined the expression of Fas (APO- 1/CD95), Fas ligand (Fas L) and bcl-2 in these tumours. The expression of Fas, Fas L and bcl-2 mRNA transcripts was determined in RCC, normal kidney and peripheral blood by semiquantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), following RNA extraction and cDNA synthesis from tissues and cell samples. Transcript levels were measured by densitometry after Southern blot hybridization of PCR products with internal radio-labelled oligonucleotide probes; a densitometry score was assigned to each hybridizing DNA band and expressed as a ratio of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase content. In peripheral blood, the expression of Fas L and bcl-2 transcripts was similar between patients and normal healthy individuals; however, Fas transcript expression was significantly down-regulated in the patients' versus normal peripheral blood (P = 0.026). Most interestingly, significantly up-regulated Fas L expression was observed in RCC compared to normal kidney (P = 0.041). In contrast, bcl-2 transcripts were well represented in normal kidney but markedly decreased in RCC (P = 0.021). The expression of Fas transcripts in normal kidney and RCC was variable. These data demonstrate elevated expression of Fas L transcripts in RCC, but the functional relevance of this remains to be investigated.

RNA Virus Evolution: a Cross-scale, Disease Dynamic Perspective

RNA viruses are an important cause of global morbidity and mortality. The rapid evolutionary rates of RNA virus pathogens, caused by high replication rates and error-prone polymerases, can make the pathogens difficult to control. RNA viruses can undergo immune escape within their hosts and develop resistance to the treatment and vaccines we design to fight them. Understanding the spread and evolution of RNA pathogens is essential for reducing human suffering. In this dissertation, I make use of the rapid evolutionary rate of viral pathogens to answer several questions about how RNA viruses spread and evolve. To address each of the questions, I link mathematical techniques for modeling viral population dynamics with phylogenetic and coalescent techniques for analyzing and modeling viral genetic sequences and evolution. The first project uses multi-scale mechanistic modeling to show that decreases in viral substitution rates over the course of an acute infection, combined with the timing of infectious hosts transmitting new infections to susceptible individuals, can account for discrepancies in viral substitution rates in different host populations. The second project combines coalescent models with within-host mathematical models to identify driving evolutionary forces in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. The third project compares the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic viral transmission rate variation on viral phylogenies.

In situ apoptosis of adaptive immune cells and the cellular escape of rabies virus in CNS from patients with human rabies transmitted by Desmodus rotundus

The aim of the current study was to investigate the apoptosis of neurons, astrocytes and immune cells from human patients that were infected with rabies virus by vampire bats bite. Apoptotic neurons were identified by their morphology and immune cells were identified using double immunostaining. There were very few apoptotic neurons present in infected tissue samples, but there was an increase of apoptotic infiltrating CD4+ and TCD8+ adaptive immune cells in the rabies infected tissue. No apoptosis was present in NK, macrophage and astrocytes. The dissemination of the human rabies virus within an infected host may be mediated by viral escape of the virus from an infected cell and may involve an anti-apoptotic mechanism, which does not kill the neuron or pro-apoptosis of TCD4+ and TCD8+ lymphocytes and which allows for increased proliferation of the virus within the CNS by attenuation of the adaptive immune response. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Long-term live imaging reveals cytosolic immune responses of host hepatocytes against Plasmodium infection and parasite escape mechanisms

Plasmodium parasites are transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes to the mammalian host and actively infect hepatocytes after passive transport in the bloodstream to the liver. In their target host hepatocyte, parasites reside within a parasitophorous vacuole (PV). In the present study it was shown that the parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM) can be targeted by autophagy marker proteins LC3, ubiquitin, and SQSTM1/p62 as well as by lysosomes in a process resembling selective autophagy. The dynamics of autophagy marker proteins in individual Plasmodium berghei-infected hepatocytes were followed by live imaging throughout the entire development of the parasite in the liver. Although the host cell very efficiently recognized the invading parasite in its vacuole, the majority of parasites survived this initial attack. Successful parasite development correlated with the gradual loss of all analyzed autophagy marker proteins and associated lysosomes from the PVM. However, other autophagic events like nonselective canonical autophagy in the host cell continued. This was indicated as LC3, although not labeling the PVM anymore, still localized to autophagosomes in the infected host cell. It appears that growing parasites even benefit from this form of nonselective host cell autophagy as an additional source of nutrients, as in host cells deficient for autophagy, parasite growth was retarded and could partly be rescued by the supply of additional amino acid in the medium. Importantly, mouse infections with P. berghei sporozoites confirmed LC3 dynamics, the positive effect of autophagy activation on parasite growth, and negative effects upon autophagy inhibition.

Tumor cells expressing a retroviral envelope escape immune rejection in vivo

A model system for the in vivo control of tumor cell proliferation by the immune system has been used to assay for the possible immunosuppressive activity of retroviral proteins. Expression vectors for the entire or the transmembrane subunit of the Moloney murine leukemia virus envelope protein were constructed, as well as control vectors for irrelevant transmembrane proteins—or no protein. They were introduced either into MCA205 murine tumor cells, which do not proliferate upon s.c. injection into an allogeneic host, or into CL8.1 murine tumor cells, which overexpress class I antigens and are rejected in a syngeneic host. In both cases, expression of the complete envelope protein or of the transmembrane subunit resulted in tumor growth in vivo, with no effect of control vectors. Tumor cell growth results from inhibition of the host immune response, as the envelope-dependent effect was no more observed for MCA205 cells in syngeneic mice or for CL8.1 cells in x-irradiated mice. This inhibition is local because it is not observed at the level of control tumor cells injected contralaterally. These results suggest a noncanonical function of retroviral envelopes in the “penetrance” of viral infections, as well as a possible involvement of the envelope proteins of endogenous retroviruses in tumoral processes.

The Role of the Humoral Immune Response in the Molecular Evolution of the Envelope C2, V3 and C3 Regions in Chronically HIV-2 Infected Patients

BACKGROUND: This study was designed to investigate, for the first time, the short-term molecular evolution of the HIV-2 C2, V3 and C3 envelope regions and its association with the immune response. Clonal sequences of the env C2V3C3 region were obtained from a cohort of eighteen HIV-2 chronically infected patients followed prospectively during 2-4 years. Genetic diversity, divergence, positive selection and glycosylation in the C2V3C3 region were analysed as a function of the number of CD4+ T cells and the anti-C2V3C3 IgG and IgA antibody reactivity RESULTS: The mean intra-host nucleotide diversity was 2.1% (SD, 1.1%), increasing along the course of infection in most patients. Diversity at the amino acid level was significantly lower for the V3 region and higher for the C2 region. The average divergence rate was 0.014 substitutions/site/year, which is similar to that reported in chronic HIV-1 infection. The number and position of positively selected sites was highly variable, except for codons 267 and 270 in C2 that were under strong and persistent positive selection in most patients. N-glycosylation sites located in C2 and V3 were conserved in all patients along the course of infection. Intra-host variation of C2V3C3-specific IgG response over time was inversely associated with the variation in nucleotide and amino acid diversity of the C2V3C3 region. Variation of the C2V3C3-specific IgA response was inversely associated with variation in the number of N-glycosylation sites. CONCLUSION: The evolutionary dynamics of HIV-2 envelope during chronic aviremic infection is similar to HIV-1 implying that the virus should be actively replicating in cellular compartments. Convergent evolution of N-glycosylation in C2 and V3, and the limited diversification of V3, indicates that there are important functional constraints to the potential diversity of the HIV-2 envelope. C2V3C3-specific IgG antibodies are effective at reducing viral population size limiting the number of virus escape mutants. The C3 region seems to be a target for IgA antibodies and increasing N-linked glycosylation may prevent HIV-2 envelope recognition by these antibodies. Our results provide new insights into the biology of HIV-2 and its relation with the human host and may have important implications for vaccine design.

Immune regulation and function of the NOD-like receptors NLRC5 and NLRP3

AbstractThe vertebrate immune system is composed of the innate and the adaptive branches. Innate immune cells represent the first line of defense and detect pathogens through pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), detecting evolutionary conserved pathogen- and danger- associated molecular patterns. Engagement of these receptors initiates the inflammatory response, but also instructs antigen-specific adaptive immune cells. NOD-like receptors (NLRs) are an important group of PRRs, leading to the production of inflammatory mediators and favoring antigen presentation to Τ lymphocytes through the regulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules.In this work we focused our attention on selected NOD-like receptors (NLRs) and their role at the interface between innate and adaptive immunity. First, we describe a new regulatory mechanism controlling IL-1 production. Our results indicate that type I interferons (IFNs) block NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasome activity and interfere with LPS-driven proIL-Ια and -β induction. As type I IFNs are produced upon viral infections, these anti-inflammatory effects of type I IFN could be relevant in the context of superinfections, but could also help explaining the efficacy of IFN-β in multiple sclerosis treatment.The second project addresses the role of a novel NLR family member, called NLRC5. The function of this NLR is still matter of debate, as it has been proposed as both an inhibitor and an activator of different inflammatory pathways. We found that the expression of this protein is restricted to immune cells and is positively regulated by IFNs. We generated Nlrc5-deficient mice and found that this NLR plays an essential role in Τ, NKT and, NK lymphocytes, in which it drives the expression of MHC class I molecules. Accordingly, we could show that CD8+ Τ cell-mediated killing of target lymphocytes lacking NLRC5 is strongly impaired. Moreover, NLRC5 expression was found to be low in many lymphoid- derived tumor cell lines, a mechanism that could be exploited by tumors to escape immunosurveillance.Finally, we found NLRC5 to be involved in the production of IL-10 by CD4+ Τ cells, as Nlrc5- deficient Τ lymphocytes produced less of this cytokine upon TCR triggering. In line with these observations, Mrc5-deficient CD4+ Τ cells expanded more than control cells when transferred into lymphopenic hosts and led to a more rapid appearance of colitis symptoms. Therefore, our work gives novel insights on the function of NLRC5 by using knockout mice, and strongly supports the idea that NLRs direct not only innate, but also adaptive immune responses.

Role of gene methylation in antitumor immune response: Implication for tumor progression

Cancer immunosurveillance theory has emphasized the role of escape mechanisms in tumor growth. In this respect, a very important factor is the molecular characterization of the mechanisms by which tumor cells evade immune recognition and destruction. Among the many escape mechanisms identified, alterations in classical and non-classical HLA (Human Leucocyte Antigens) class I and class II expression by tumor cells are of particular interest. In addition to the importance of HLA molecules, tumor-associated antigens and accessory/co-stimulatory molecules are also involved in immune recognition. The loss of HLA class I antigen expression and of co-stimulatory molecules can occur at genetic, transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. Epigenetic defects are involved in at least some mechanisms that preclude mounting a successful host-antitumor response involving the HLA system, tumor-associated antigens, and accessory/co-stimulatory molecules. This review summarizes our current understanding of the role of methylation in the regulation of molecules involved in the tumor immune response.

Innate immune sensing of modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is mediated by TLR2-TLR6, MDA-5 and the NALP3 inflammasome.

Modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) is an attenuated double-stranded DNA poxvirus currently developed as a vaccine vector against HIV/AIDS. Profiling of the innate immune responses induced by MVA is essential for the design of vaccine vectors and for anticipating potential adverse interactions between naturally acquired and vaccine-induced immune responses. Here we report on innate immune sensing of MVA and cytokine responses in human THP-1 cells, primary human macrophages and mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs). The innate immune responses elicited by MVA in human macrophages were characterized by a robust chemokine production and a fairly weak pro-inflammatory cytokine response. Analyses of the cytokine production profile of macrophages isolated from knockout mice deficient in Toll-like receptors (TLRs) or in the adapter molecules MyD88 and TRIF revealed a critical role for TLR2, TLR6 and MyD88 in the production of IFNbeta-independent chemokines. MVA induced a marked up-regulation of the expression of RIG-I like receptors (RLR) and the IPS-1 adapter (also known as Cardif, MAVS or VISA). Reduced expression of RIG-I, MDA-5 and IPS-1 by shRNAs indicated that sensing of MVA by RLR and production of IFNbeta and IFNbeta-dependent chemokines was controlled by the MDA-5 and IPS-1 pathway in the macrophage. Crosstalk between TLR2-MyD88 and the NALP3 inflammasome was essential for expression and processing of IL-1beta. Transcription of the Il1b gene was markedly impaired in TLR2(-/-) and MyD88(-/-) BMDM, whereas mature and secreted IL-1beta was massively reduced in NALP3(-/-) BMDMs or in human THP-1 macrophages with reduced expression of NALP3, ASC or caspase-1 by shRNAs. Innate immune sensing of MVA and production of chemokines, IFNbeta and IL-1beta by macrophages is mediated by the TLR2-TLR6-MyD88, MDA-5-IPS-1 and NALP3 inflammasome pathways. Delineation of the host response induced by MVA is critical for improving our understanding of poxvirus antiviral escape mechanisms and for designing new MVA vaccine vectors with improved immunogenicity.

Immune response to HIV.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Major advances have been made in the delineation of HIV-specific immune response and in the mechanisms of virus escape. The kinetics of the immunological and virological events occurring during primary HIV infection indicate that the establishment of the latent HIV reservoir, the major obstacle to HIV eradication likely occurs during the very early stages of primary infection, that is, the 'eclipse phase', prior to the development of the HIV-specific immune response which has limited efficacy in the control of the early events of infection. Therefore, the window of opportunity to develop effective interventions either to clear HIV during primary infection or to prevent rebound of HIV in patients successfully treated who stop antiretroviral therapy is very narrow. RECENT FINDINGS: Genetic factors most strongly associated with nonprogressive infection are human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I alleles and particularly HLA-B5701. CD4 and CD8 T-cell responses with polyfunctional profile are associated with nonprogressive infection. Broader neutralizing antibodies are detected 3-4 years after infection, generated only in 20% of individuals but show no efficacy in the control of HIV replication. SUMMARY: In the present review, we shall discuss the different components of the HIV-specific immune response elicited by the infection, the kinetics of these responses during primary infection and the changes following transition to the chronic phase of infection, and the functional profile of 'effective' versus 'noneffective' HIV-specific immune responses.

Tolerogenic dendritic cells and their role in induction of immune tolerance

Les cellules dendritiques sont des cellules du système immunitaire qui permettent d'instruire les lymphocytes T, autres cellules de ce système, pour mettre en place une réponse immunitaire adaptée afin de combattre et vaincre une infection. Ces cellules dendritiques vont reconnaître des motifs spécifiquement exprimés par des pathogènes par l'intermédiaire de récepteurs exprimés à leur surface. En détectant ces molécules, elles vont s'activer et subir diverses modifications pour pouvoir activer les lymphocytes T. Elles vont alors interagir avec les lymphocytes Τ et transférer les informations nécessaires pour que ces cellules s'activent à leur tour et produisent différentes protéines de façon à éliminer le pathogène. En fonction du type de pathogène, les informations transférées entre les cellules dendritiques et les lymphocytes seront différentes de manière à produire la réponse immunitaire la mieux adaptée pour supprimer l'élément infectieux. Dans le corps, les cellules dendritiques circulent continuellement afin de détecter les éléments étrangers. Quand elles reconnaissent une protéine étrangère, elles la phagocytent, c'est-à-dire qu'elles la mangent afin de pouvoir la présenter aux lymphocytes T. Mais quand elles phagocytent un élément étranger, elles peuvent également prendre des éléments du soi, comme par exemple quand elles phagocytent une cellule infectée par un virus. Les cellules dendritiques doivent alors être capables de différentier les molécules du soi et du non-soi de façon à ne pas induire une réponse en présentant un antigène du soi aux lymphocytes T. D'autant plus que lors de leur développement, les lymphocytes Τ qui sont capables de reconnaître le soi sont éliminés mais ce système n'est pas parfait et donc certains lymphocytes Τ auto-reactifs peuvent se trouver dans le corps. Il existe ainsi d'autres mécanismes en périphérie du site de développement pour inhiber ces lymphocytes Τ auto-reactifs. Ce sont les mécanismes de tolérance. Quand les lymphocytes Τ induisent une réponse aux antigènes du soi, cela résulte à des maladies auto-immunes. Dans mon projet de recherche, nous avons travaillé avec des lignées de cellules dendritiques, c'est-à-dire des cellules dendritiques semblables à celles que l'on peut trouver in vivo mais qui sont immortalisées, elles peuvent donc être cultiver et manipuler in vitro. Nous avons génétiquement modifiées ces lignées cellulaires pour qu'elles expriment des molécules immunosuppressives afin d'étudier comment induire une tolérance immunitaire, c'est-à-dire si l'expression de ces molécules permet d'éviter de générer une réponse immunitaire. Pour cela, nous avons utilisé des modèles murins de tumeurs et de maladies auto-immunes. Nous avons démontré que ces lignées de cellules dendritiques peuvent être un grand outil de recherche pour étudier les bénéfices de différentes molécules immuno-modulatrices afin d'induire une tolérance immunitaire à différents antigènes. - Les cellules dendritiques sont responsables de l'induction des réponses immunitaires adaptatives. Suite à une infection microbienne, les cellules dendritiques s'activent, elles induisent l'expression de molécules de costimulation à leur surface, sécrètent des cytokines et induisent la différentiation des cellules Τ effectrices et mémoires. De plus, les cellules dendritiques ont un rôle important dans l'induction et la maintenance de la tolérance immunitaire au niveau du thymus et en périphérie, en induisant l'anergie, la délétion ou la conversion des cellules Τ naïves en cellules régulatrices. Dans notre groupe, une nouvelle lignée de cellules dendritiques appelée MuTu a été crée par la culture de cellules dendritiques tumorales isolées à partir d'une rate d'une souris transgénique, dans laquelle l'expression de l'oncogène SV40 et du GFP sont sous le contrôle du promoteur CD1 le, et sont ainsi spécifiquement exprimés dans les cellules dendritiques. Ces nouvelles lignées appartiennent au sous-type des cellules dendritiques conventionnelles exprimant CD8a. Elles ont conservé leur capacité d'augmenter l'expression des marqueurs de costimulation à leur surface ainsi que le production de cytokines en réponse à des ligands des récepteurs Toll, ainsi que leur capacité à présenter des antigènes associés aux molécules du complexe majeur d'histocompatibilité (CMH) de classe I ou II pour activer la prolifération et la différentiation des lymphocytes T. En utilisant un système de transduction de lentivirus de seconde génération, ces nouvelles lignées de cellules dendritiques ont été génétiquement modifiées pour sur-exprimer des molécules immunosuppressives (IL-10, TGFP latent, TGFp actif, Activin A, Arginase 1, IDO, B7DC et CTLA4). Ces lignées permettent d'étudier de manière reproductible le rôle de ces molécules potentiellement tolérogènes sur les réponses immunitaires in vitro et in vivo. Ces lignées potentiellement tolérogènes ont été testées, tout d'abord, in vitro, pour leur capacité à inhiber l'activation des cellules dendritiques, à bloquer la prolifération des cellules Τ ou à modifier leur polarisation. Nos résultats démontrent qu'en réponse à une stimulation, la sur-expression des molécules costimulatrices et la sécrétion de molécules pro- inflammatoires est réduite quand les cellules dendritiques sur-expriment l'IL-10. La sur¬expression de TGFp sous sa forme active induit le développement de cellules régulatrices CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ et bloque la réponse CD8 cytotoxique tandis que la sur-expression de CTLA4 à la surface des cellules dendritiques inhibe une réponse Thl et induit des lymphocytes Τ anergiques. Ces lignées ont également été utilisées pour étudier l'induction de tolérance in vivo. Tout d'abord, nous avons étudié l'induction de tolérance dans un modèle de développement de tumeurs. En effet, quand les lignées tumorales sont transférées dans les lignées de souris C57BL/6, elles sont reconnues comme du non-soi du à l'expression de l'oncogène SV40 et du GFP et sont éliminées. Ce mécanisme d'élimination a été étudié en utilisant une lignée de cellules dendritiques modifiée pour exprimer la luciférase et qui a permis de suivre le développement des tumeurs par de l'imagerie in vivo dans des animaux vivants. Ces lignées de cellules dendritiques MuTu sont éliminées dans la souris C57BL/6 par les lymphocytes CD8 et l'action cytotoxique de la perforine. Après plusieurs injections, les cellules dendritiques sur-exprimant CTLA4 ou l'actif TGFp peuvent casser cette réponse immunitaire inhérente aux antigènes de la lignée et induire le développement de la tumeur dans la souris C57BL/6. Le développement tumoral a pu être suivi en mesurant la bioluminescence émise par des cellules dendritiques modifiées pour exprimer à la fois l'actif TGFp et la luciférase. Ces tumeurs ont pu se développer grâce à la mise en place d'un microenvironnement suppressif pour échapper à l'immunité en recrutant des cellules myéloïde suppressives, des lymphocytes CD4 régulateurs et en induisant l'expression d'une molécule inhibitrice PD-1 à la surface des lymphocytes CD8 infiltrant la tumeur. Dans un deuxième temps, ces lignées tolérogènes ont également été testées dans un modèle murin de maladies auto-immunes, appelé l'encéphalomyélite auto-immune expérimental (EAE), qui est un modèle pour la sclérose en plaques. L'EAE a été induite dans la souris par le transfert de cellules de ganglions prélevées d'une souris donneuse préalablement immunisée avec une protéine du système nerveux central, la glycoprotéine myéline oligodendrocyte (MOG) émulsifiée dans de l'adjuvant complet de Freund. La vaccination des souris donneuses et receveuses avec les cellules sur-exprimant l'actif TGFP préalablement chargées avec la protéine MOG bloque l'induction de l'EAE. Nous sommes actuellement en train de définir les mécanismes qui permettent de protéger la souris du développement de la maladie auto-immune. Dans cette étude, nous avons ainsi démontré la possibilité d'induire la tolérance in vivo et in vitro à différents antigènes en utilisant nos nouvelles lignées de cellules dendritiques et en les modifiant pour exprimer des molécules immunosuppressives. En conséquence, ces nouvelles lignées de cellules dendritiques représentent un outil pour explorer les bénéfices de différentes molécules ayant des propriétés immuno-modulatrices pour manipuler le système immunitaire vers un phénotype tolérogène. - Dendritic cells (DC) are widely recognized as potent inducers of the adaptive immune responses. Importantly, after microbial infections, DC become activated, induce co- stimulation, secrete cytokines and induce effector and memory Τ cells. DC furthermore play an important role in inducing and maintaining central and peripheral tolerance by inducing anergy, deletion or commitment of antigen-specific naïve Τ cells into regulatory Τ cells. In our group, stable MuTu DC lines were generated by culture of splenic DC tumors from transgenic mice expressing the SV40 large Τ oncogene and the GFP under DC-specific CDllc promoter. These transformed DC belong to the CD8a+ conventional DC subtype and have fully conserved their capacity to upregulate co-stimulatory markers and produce cytokines after activation with Toll Like Receptors-ligands, and to present Major Histocompatibility class-I or MHCII-restricted antigens to activate Τ cell expansion and differentiation. Using a second- generation lentiviral transduction system, these newly developed MuTu DC lines were genetically modified to overexpress immunosuppressive molecules (IL-10, latent TGFp, active TGFp, Activin A, Arginase 1, IDO, B7DC and CTLA4). This allows to reproducibly investigate the role of these potentially tolerogenic molecules on in vitro and in vivo immune responses. These potentially tolerogenic DC were tested in vitro for their ability to inhibit DC activation, to prevent Τ cell proliferation and to modify Τ cell polarization. Our results show that the upregulation of costimulatory molecules and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines were reduced upon stimulation of DC overexpressing IL-10. The overexpression of active TGFP induced the development of CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ regulatory Τ cells and inhibited the cytotoxic CD8 Τ cell response as shown by using the OT-II Τ cell system whereas the surface expression of CTLA-4 on DC prevented the Thl response and prompted an anergic antigen-specific Τ cell response. These MuTu DC lines were also used in vivo in order to study the induction of tolerance. First we addressed the induction of tolerance in a model of tumorogenesis. The adoptively transferred tumor cell lines were cleared in C57BL/6 mice due to the foreign expression of SV40 LargeT and GFP. The mechanism of clearance of MuTu DC line into C57BL/6 mice was investigated by using luciferase-expressing DC line. These DC line allowed to follow, by in vivo imaging, the tumor development in living animals and determined that MuTu DC lines were eliminated in a perforin-mediated CD8 Τ cell dependent and CD4 Τ cell independent response. After multiple injections, DC overexpressing CTLA4 or active TGFp could break the immune response to these inherent antigens and induced DC tumorogenesis in wild type mice. The tumor outgrowth in C57BL/6 mice was nicely observed by double-transduced DC lines to express both luciferase and active TGFp. actTGFp-DC tumor was shown to recruit myeloid-derived suppressor cells, induce CD4+ CD25+ Foxp3+ regulatory Τ cells and induce the expression of the inhibitory receptor PD-1 on tumor- infiltrating CD8+ Τ cells in order to escape tumor immunity. Tolerogenic DC lines were also tested for the induction of tolerance in a murine model of autoimmune disease, the experimental autoimmune encephalitis (EAE) model for human multiple sclerosis. EAE was induced in C57BL/6 mice by the adoptive transfer of lymph node cells isolated from donor mice previously immunized by a protein specific to the central nervous system, the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) emulsified in the complete freund adjuvant. The vaccination of donor and recipient mice with MOG-pulsed actTGFP-DC line prevented EAE induction. We are still investigating how the active TGFP protect mice from EAE development. We generated tolerogenic DC lines inducing tolerance in vitro and in vivo. Thereby these MuTu DC lines represent a great tool to explore the benefits of various immuno-modulatory molecules to manipulate the immune system toward a tolerogenic phenotype.

Immunodominance: a new hypothesis to explain parasite escape and host/parasite equilibrium leading to the chronic phase of Chagas' disease?

Intense immune responses are observed during human or experimental infection with the digenetic protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. The reasons why such immune responses are unable to completely eliminate the parasites are unknown. The survival of the parasite leads to a parasite-host equilibrium found during the chronic phase of chagasic infection in most individuals. Parasite persistence is recognized as the most likely cause of the chagasic chronic pathologies. Therefore, a key question in Chagas' disease is to understand how this equilibrium is established and maintained for a long period. Understanding the basis for this equilibrium may lead to new approaches to interventions that could help millions of individuals at risk for infection or who are already infected with T. cruzi. Here, we propose that the phenomenon of immunodominance may be significant in terms of regulating the host-parasite equilibrium observed in Chagas' disease. T. cruzi infection restricts the repertoire of specific T cells generating, in some cases, an intense immunodominant phenotype and in others causing a dramatic interference in the response to distinct epitopes. This immune response is sufficiently strong to maintain the host alive during the acute phase carrying them to the chronic phase where transmission usually occurs. At the same time, immunodominance interferes with the development of a higher and broader immune response that could be able to completely eliminate the parasite. Based on this, we discuss how we can interfere with or take advantage of immunodominance in order to provide an immunotherapeutic alternative for chagasic individuals.

Recognition of hepatitis C virus RNA by toll like receptors 7 and 8 : implications for the initiation of innate immune response

Le virus de l’hépatite C (VHC) est un virus à ARN simple brin positif (ssARN) qui se replique dans le foie. Deux cents millions de personnes sont infectées par le virus dans le monde et environ 80% d’entre elles progresseront vers un stade chronique de l’infection. Les thérapies anti-virales actuelles comme l’interféron (IFN) ou la ribavirin sont de plus en plus utilisées mais ne sont efficaces que dans la moitié des individus traités et sont souvent accompagnées d’une toxicité ou d’effets secondaires indésirables. Le système immunitaire inné est essentiel au contrôle des infections virales. Les réponses immunitaires innées sont activées suite à la reconnaissance par les Pathogen Recognition Receptors (PRRs), de motifs macromoléculaires dérivés du virus appelés Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs). Bien que l'activation du système immunitaire par l'ARN ou les protéines du VHC ait été largement étudiée, très peu de choses sont actuellement connues concernant la détection du virus par le système immunitaire inné. Et même si l’on peut très rapidement déceler des réponses immunes in vivo après infection par le VHC, l’augmentation progressive et continue de la charge virale met en évidence une incapacité du système immunitaire à contrôler l’infection virale. Une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes d’activation du système immunitaire par le VHC semble, par conséquent, essentielle au développement de stratégies antivirales plus efficaces. Dans le présent travail nous montrons, dans un modèle de cellule primaire, que le génome ARN du VHC contient des séquences riches en GU capables de stimuler spécifiquement les récepteurs de type Toll (TLR) 7 et 8. Cette stimulation a pour conséquence la maturation des cellules dendritiques plasmacytoïdes (pDCs), le production d’interféron de type I (IFN) ainsi que l’induction de chémokines et cytokines inflammatoires par les différentes types de cellules présentatrices d’antigènes (APCs). Les cytokines produites après stimulation de monocytes ou de pDCs par ces séquences ssARN virales, inhibent la production du virus de façon dépendante de l’IFN. En revanche, les cytokines produites après stimulation de cellules dendritiques myéloïdes (mDCs) ou de macrophages par ces mêmes séquences n’ont pas d’effet inhibiteur sur la production virale car les séquences ssARN virales n’induisent pas la production d’IFN par ces cellules. Les cytokines produites après stimulation des TLR 7/8 ont également pour effet de diminuer, de façon indépendante de l’IFN, l’expression du récepteur au VHC (CD81) sur la lignée cellulaire Huh7.5, ce qui pourrait avoir pour conséquence de restreindre l’infection par le VHC. Quoiqu’il en soit, même si les récepteurs au VHC comme le CD81 sont largement exprimés à la surface de différentes sous populations lymphocytaires, les DCs et les monocytes ne répondent pas aux VHC, Nos résultats indiquent que seuls les macrophages sont capables de reconnaître le VHC et de produire des cytokines inflammatoires en réponse à ce dernier. La reconnaissance du VHC par les macrophages est liée à l’expression membranaire de DC-SIGN et l’engagement des TLR 7/8 qui en résulte. Comme d’autres agonistes du TLR 7/8, le VHC stimule la production de cytokines inflammatoires (TNF-α, IL-8, IL-6 et IL-1b) mais n’induit pas la production d’interféron-beta par les macrophages. De manière attendue, la production de cytokines par des macrophages stimulés par les ligands du TLR 7/8 ou les séquences ssARN virales n’inhibent pas la réplication virale. Nos résultats mettent en évidence la capacité des séquences ssARN dérivées du VHC à stimuler les TLR 7/8 dans différentes populations de DC et à initier une réponse immunitaire innée qui aboutit à la suppression de la réplication virale de façon dépendante de l’IFN. Quoiqu’il en soit, le VHC est capable d’échapper à sa reconnaissance par les monocytes et les DCs qui ont le potentiel pour produire de l’IFN et inhiber la réplication virale après engagement des TLR 7/8. Les macrophages possèdent quant à eux la capacité de reconnaître le VHC grâce en partie à l’expression de DC-SIGN à leur surface, mais n’inhibent pas la réplication du virus car ils ne produisent pas d’IFN. L’échappement du VHC aux défenses antivirales pourrait ainsi expliquer l’échec du système immunitaire inné à contrôler l’infection par le VHC. De plus, la production de cytokines inflammatoires observée après stimulation in vitro des macrophages par le VHC suggère leur potentielle contribution dans l’inflammation que l’on retrouve chez les individus infectés par le VHC.