SPATIOTEMPORAL VARIATION AND ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF ACTINOMYCETES ISOLATED FROM HIGH ALTITUDE GRASSLAND SOILS OF TROPICAL MONTANE FOREST – KERALA, INDIA

TThe invention of novel antibiotics and other bioactive microbial metabolites continues to be an important aim in new drug discovery programmes. Actinomycetes have the potential to synthesize lots of diverse biologically vigorous secondary metabolites and in the last decades actinomycetes became the most productive source for antibiotics. Therefore in the present study we analyze the antibacterial activity of the actinomycetes isolated from grassland soil samples of Tropical Montane forest. A total of 33 actinomycete strains isolated were characterized and screened for antibacterial activities using well diffusion method against six specific pathogenic organisms. Identification of the isolates revealed that the majority of them were belonging to Streptomycetes followed by Nocardia, Micromonospora, Pseudonocardia, Streptosporangium, Nocardiopsis and Saccharomonospora. Among the 33 isolates, Gr1 strain showed antagonistic activity against all checked pathogens. Nine strains showed antibacaterial activity against Listeria, Vibrio cholera, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella typhi and only 2 strains (Gr1and Gr25) showed antagonism to E. coli. The overall percentage of activity of actinomycetes isolates against each pathogenic bacterium was also calculated. While 63.63% of the actinomycetes were antagoinistic against Listeria, Vibrio cholerae, and Bacillus cereus, 60.6% of them were antagonistic to Staphylococcus aureus. Very few isolates (6.06%) showed antibacterial activity against E. coli. In general most of the actinomycetes isolates were antagonistic to grampositive bacteria such as Listeria, Bacillus and Staphylococcus than Gram-negative bacteria Vibrio cholerae, E. coli and Salmonella

The biometeorology of high-altitude insect layers.

Flight at high altitude is part of a migration strategy that maximises insect population displacement. This thesis represents the first substantial analysis of insect migration and layering in Europe. Vertical-looking entomological radar has revealed specific characteristics of high-altitude flight: in particular layering (where a large proportion of the migrating insects are concentrated in a narrow altitude band). The meteorological mechanisms underpinning the formation of these layers are the focus of this thesis. Aerial netting samples and radar data revealed four distinct periods of high-altitude insect migration: dawn, daytime, dusk, and night-time. The most frequently observed nocturnal profiles during the summertime were layers. It is hypothesised that nocturnal layers initiate at a critical altitude (200–500 m above ground level) and time (20:00–22:00 hours UTC). Case study analysis, statistical analysis, and a Lagrangian trajectory model showed that nocturnal insect layers probably result from the insects’ response to meteorological conditions. Temperature was the variable most correlated with nocturnal insect layer presence and intensity because insects are poikilothermic, and temperatures experienced during high-altitude migration in temperate climates are expected to be marginal for many insects’ flight. Hierarchical effects were detected such that other variables—specifically wind speed—were only correlated with insect layer presence and intensity once temperatures were warm. The trajectory model developed comprised: (i) insect flight characteristics; (ii) turbulent winds (which cause vertical spread of the layer); and (iii) mean wind speed, which normally leads to horizontal displacements of hundreds of kilometres in a single migratory flight. This thesis has revealed that there is considerable migratory activity over the UK in the summer months, and a range of fascinating phenomena can be observed (including layers). The UK has moved from one of the least studied to perhaps the best studied environments of aerial insect migration and layering in the world.

Flight periodicity and the vertical distribution of high-altitude moth migration over southern Britain

The continuous operation of insect-monitoring radars in the UK has permitted, for the first time, the characterization of various phenomena associated with high-altitude migration of large insects over this part of northern Europe. Previous studies have taken a case-study approach, concentrating on a small number of nights of particular interest. Here, combining data from two radars, and from an extensive suction- and light-trapping network, we have undertaken a more systematic, longer-term study of diel flight periodicity and vertical distribution of macro-insects in the atmosphere. Firstly, we identify general features of insect abundance and stratification, occurring during the 24-hour cycle, which emerge from four years’ aggregated radar data for the summer months in southern Britain. These features include mass emigrations at dusk and to a lesser extent at dawn, and daytime concentrations associated with thermal convection. We then focus our attention on the well-defined layers of large nocturnal migrants that form in the early evening, usually at heights of 200–500 m above ground. We present evidence from both radar and trap data that these nocturnal layers are composed mainly of noctuid moths, with species such as Noctua pronuba, Autographa gamma, Agrotis exclamationis, A. segetum, Xestia c-nigrum and Phlogophora meticulosa predominating.

Layers of nocturnal insect migrants at high-altitude: the influence of atmospheric conditions on their formation

1 Radar studies of nocturnal insect migration have often found that the migrants tend to form well-defined horizontal layers at a particular altitude. 2 In previous short-term studies, nocturnal layers were usually observed to occur at the same altitude as certain meteorological features, most notably at the altitudes of temperature inversions or nocturnal wind jets. 3 Statistical analyses are presented of four years’ data that compared the presence, sharpness and duration of nocturnal layer profiles (observed using continuously-operating entomological radar) with meteorological variables at typical layer altitudes over the UK. 4 Analysis of these large datasets demonstrated that temperature was the foremost meteorological factor persistently associated with the presence and formation of longer-lasting and sharper layers of migrating insects over southern UK.

Ground-based aerosol optical depth trends at three high-altitude sites in Switzerland and Southern Germany from 1995–2010

Ground-based aerosol optical depth (AOD) climatologies at three high-altitude sites in Switzerland (Jungfraujoch and Davos) and Southern Germany (Hohenpeissenberg) are updated and re-calibrated for the period 1995 – 2010. In addition, AOD time-series are augmented with previously unreported data, and are homogenized for the first time. Trend analysis revealed weak AOD trends (λ = 500 nm) at Jungfraujoch (JFJ; +0.007 decade-1), Davos (DAV; +0.002 decade-1) and Hohenpeissenberg (HPB; -0.011 decade-1) where the JFJ and HPB trends were statistically significant at the 95% and 90% confidence levels. However, a linear trend for the JFJ 1995 – 2005 period was found to be more appropriate than for 1995 – 2010 due to the influence of stratospheric AOD which gave a trend -0.003 decade-1 (significant at 95% level). When correcting for a recently available stratospheric AOD time-series, accounting for Pinatubo (1991) and more recent volcanic eruptions, the 1995 – 2010 AOD trends decreased slightly at DAV and HPB but remained weak at +0.000 decade-1 and -0.013 decade-1 (significant at 95% level). The JFJ 1995 – 2005 AOD time-series similarly decreased to -0.003 decade-1 (significant at 95% level). We conclude that despite a more detailed re40 analysis of these three time-series, which have been extended by five years to the end of 2010, a significant decrease in AOD at these three high-altitude sites has still not been observed.

Informe del Seminario Regional sobre Políticas Agrarias y Sobrevivencia Campesina en Ecosistemas de Altura = Report of the Regional Seminar on Agrarian Policies and Peasant Survival in High-Altitude Ecosystems

Conclusiones y recomendaciones del Seminario cuyo objetivo fue analizar los problemas del campesinado andino en ecosistemas de altura relacionados con la penetración del estilo de desarrollo predominante en Latinoamérica, resaltando los complejos influjos recíprocos entre la oferta ambiental de recursos, las particularidades de los distintos pisos ecológicos, las formas y sistemas de organización social, los cambios y tendencias de la situación ambiental, para recomendar políticas de desarrollo que sean opciones viables para resolver los problemas del campesino de esas áreas. Incluye lista de participantes y documentos presentados.

Maximal exercise and muscle oxygen extraction in acclimatizing lowlanders and high altitude natives

[EN] The tight relation between arterial oxygen content and maximum oxygen uptake (Vv(o2max)within a given person at sea level is diminished with altitude acclimatization. An explanation often suggested for this mismatch is impairment of the muscle O(2) extraction capacity with chronic hypoxia, and is the focus of the present study. We have studied six lowlanders during maximal exercise at sea level (SL) and with acute (AH) exposure to 4,100 m altitude, and again after 2 (W2) and 8 weeks (W8) of altitude sojourn, where also eight high altitude native (Nat) Aymaras were studied. Fractional arterial muscle O(2) extraction at maximal exercise was 90.0+/-1.0% in the Danish lowlanders at sea level, and remained close to this value in all situations. In contrast to this, fractional arterial O(2) extraction was 83.2+/-2.8% in the high altitude natives, and did not change with the induction of normoxia. The capillary oxygen conductance of the lower extremity, a measure of oxygen diffusing capacity, was decreased in the Danish lowlanders after 8 weeks of acclimatization, but was still higher than the value obtained from the high altitude natives. The values were (in ml min(-1) mmHg(-1)) 55.2+/-3.7 (SL), 48.0+/-1.7 (W2), 37.8+/-0.4 (W8) and 27.7+/-1.5 (Nat). However, when correcting oxygen conductance for the observed reduction in maximal leg blood flow with acclimatization the effect diminished. When calculating a hypothetical leg V(o2max)at altitude using either the leg blood flow or the O(2) conductance values obtained at sea level, the former values were almost completely restored to sea level values. This would suggest that the major determinant V(o2max)for not to increase with acclimatization is the observed reduction in maximal leg blood flow and O(2) conductance.

The lactate paradox revisited in lowlanders during acclimatization to 4100 m and in high-altitude natives

[EN] Chronic hypoxia has been proposed to induce a closer coupling in human skeletal muscle between ATP utilization and production in both lowlanders (LN) acclimatizing to high altitude and high-altitude natives (HAN), linked with an improved match between pyruvate availability and its use in mitochondrial respiration. This should result in less lactate being formed during exercise in spite of the hypoxaemia. To test this hypothesis six LN (22-31 years old) were studied during 15 min warm up followed by an incremental bicycle exercise to exhaustion at sea level, during acute hypoxia and after 2 and 8 weeks at 4100 m above sea level (El Alto, Bolivia). In addition, eight HAN (26-37 years old) were studied with a similar exercise protocol at altitude. The leg net lactate release, and the arterial and muscle lactate concentrations were elevated during the exercise in LN in acute hypoxia and remained at this higher level during the acclimatization period. HAN had similar high values; however, at the moment of exhaustion their muscle lactate, ADP and IMP content and Cr/PCr ratio were higher than in LN. In conclusion, sea-level residents in the course of acclimatization to high altitude did not exhibit a reduced capacity for the active muscle to produce lactate. Thus, the lactate paradox concept could not be demonstrated. High-altitude natives from the Andes actually exhibit a higher anaerobic energy production than lowlanders after 8 weeks of acclimatization reflected by an increased muscle lactate accumulation and enhanced adenine nucleotide breakdown.

Pulmonary gas exchange at maximal exercise in Danish lowlanders during 8 wk of acclimatization to 4,100 m and in high-altitude Aymara natives

[EN] We aimed to test effects of altitude acclimatization on pulmonary gas exchange at maximal exercise. Six lowlanders were studied at sea level, in acute hypoxia (AH), and after 2 and 8 wk of acclimatization to 4,100 m (2W and 8W) and compared with Aymara high-altitude natives residing at this altitude. As expected, alveolar Po2 was reduced during AH but increased gradually during acclimatization (61 +/- 0.7, 69 +/- 0.9, and 72 +/- 1.4 mmHg in AH, 2W, and 8W, respectively), reaching values significantly higher than in Aymaras (67 +/- 0.6 mmHg). Arterial Po2 (PaO2) also decreased during exercise in AH but increased significantly with acclimatization (51 +/- 1.1, 58 +/- 1.7, and 62 +/- 1.6 mmHg in AH, 2W, and 8W, respectively). PaO2 in lowlanders reached levels that were not different from those in high-altitude natives (66 +/- 1.2 mmHg). Arterial O2 saturation (SaO2) decreased during maximum exercise compared with rest in AH and after 2W and 8W: 73.3 +/- 1.4, 76.9 +/- 1.7, and 79.3 +/- 1.6%, respectively. After 8W, SaO2 in lowlanders was not significantly different from that in Aymaras (82.7 +/- 1%). An improved pulmonary gas exchange with acclimatization was evidenced by a decreased ventilatory equivalent of O2 after 8W: 59 +/- 4, 58 +/- 4, and 52 +/- 4 l x min x l O2(-1), respectively. The ventilatory equivalent of O2 reached levels not different from that of Aymaras (51 +/- 3 l x min x l O2(-1)). However, increases in exercise alveolar Po2 and PaO2 with acclimatization had no net effect on alveolar-arterial Po2 difference in lowlanders (10 +/- 1.3, 11 +/- 1.5, and 10 +/- 2.1 mmHg in AH, 2W, and 8W, respectively), which remained significantly higher than in Aymaras (1 +/- 1.4 mmHg). In conclusion, lowlanders substantially improve pulmonary gas exchange with acclimatization, but even acclimatization for 8 wk is insufficient to achieve levels reached by high-altitude natives.

Pulmonary gas exchange and acid-base state at 5,260 m in high-altitude Bolivians and acclimatized lowlanders

[EN] Pulmonary gas exchange and acid-base state were compared in nine Danish lowlanders (L) acclimatized to 5,260 m for 9 wk and seven native Bolivian residents (N) of La Paz (altitude 3,600-4,100 m) brought acutely to this altitude. We evaluated normalcy of arterial pH and assessed pulmonary gas exchange and acid-base balance at rest and during peak exercise when breathing room air and 55% O2. Despite 9 wk at 5,260 m and considerable renal bicarbonate excretion (arterial plasma HCO3- concentration = 15.1 meq/l), resting arterial pH in L was 7.48 +/- 0.007 (significantly greater than 7.40). On the other hand, arterial pH in N was only 7.43 +/- 0.004 (despite arterial O2 saturation of 77%) after ascent from 3,600-4,100 to 5,260 m in 2 h. Maximal power output was similar in the two groups breathing air, whereas on 55% O2 only L showed a significant increase. During exercise in air, arterial PCO2 was 8 Torr lower in L than in N (P < 0.001), yet PO2 was the same such that, at maximal O2 uptake, alveolar-arterial PO2 difference was lower in N (5.3 +/- 1.3 Torr) than in L (10.5 +/- 0.8 Torr), P = 0.004. Calculated O2 diffusing capacity was 40% higher in N than in L and, if referenced to maximal hyperoxic work, capacity was 73% greater in N. Buffering of lactic acid was greater in N, with 20% less increase in base deficit per millimole per liter rise in lactate. These data show in L persistent alkalosis even after 9 wk at 5,260 m. In N, the data show 1) insignificant reduction in exercise capacity when breathing air at 5,260 m compared with breathing 55% O2; 2) very little ventilatory response to acute hypoxemia (judged by arterial pH and arterial PCO2 responses to hyperoxia); 3) during exercise, greater pulmonary diffusing capacity than in L, allowing maintenance of arterial PO2 despite lower ventilation; and 4) better buffering of lactic acid. These results support and extend similar observations concerning adaptation in lung function in these and other high-altitude native groups previously performed at much lower altitudes.

Parasympathetic neural activity accounts for the lowering of exercise heart rate at high altitude

[EN] BACKGROUND: In chronic hypoxia, both heart rate (HR) and cardiac output (Q) are reduced during exercise. The role of parasympathetic neural activity in lowering HR is unresolved, and its influence on Q and oxygen transport at high altitude has never been studied. METHODS AND RESULTS: HR, Q, oxygen uptake, mean arterial pressure, and leg blood flow were determined at rest and during cycle exercise with and without vagal blockade with glycopyrrolate in 7 healthy lowlanders after 9 weeks' residence at >/=5260 m (ALT). At ALT, glycopyrrolate increased resting HR by 80 bpm (73+/-4 to 153+/-4 bpm) compared with 53 bpm (61+/-3 to 114+/-6 bpm) at sea level (SL). During exercise at ALT, glycopyrrolate increased HR by approximately 40 bpm both at submaximal (127+/-4 to 170+/-3 bpm; 118 W) and maximal (141+/-6 to 180+/-2 bpm) exercise, whereas at SL, the increase was only by 16 bpm (137+/-6 to 153+/-4 bpm) at 118 W, with no effect at maximal exercise (181+/-2 bpm). Despite restoration of maximal HR to SL values, glycopyrrolate had no influence on Q, which was reduced at ALT. Breathing FIO(2)=0.55 at peak exercise restored Q and power output to SL values. CONCLUSIONS: Enhanced parasympathetic neural activity accounts for the lowering of HR during exercise at ALT without influencing Q. The abrupt restoration of peak exercise Q in chronic hypoxia to maximal SL values when arterial PO(2) and SO(2) are similarly increased suggests hypoxia-mediated attenuation of Q.

Intraocular pressure during a very high altitude climb

Reports on intraocular pressure (IOP) changes at high altitudes have provided inconsistent and even conflicting

High-altitude exposure in patients with cardiovascular disease: risk assessment and practical recommendations

Because of the development of modern transportation facilities, an ever rising number of individuals including many patients with preexisting diseases visit high-altitude locations (>2500 m). High-altitude exposure triggers a series of physiologic responses intended to maintain an adequate tissue oxygenation. Even in normal subjects, there is enormous interindividual variability in these responses that may be further amplified by environmental factors such as cold temperature, low humidity, exercise, and stress. These adaptive mechanisms, although generally tolerated by most healthy subjects, may induce major problems in patients with preexisting cardiovascular diseases in which the functional reserves are already limited. Preexposure assessment of patients helps to minimize risk and detect contraindications to high-altitude exposure. Moreover, the great variability and nonpredictability of the adaptive response should encourage physicians counseling such patients to adapt a cautionary approach. Here, we will briefly review how high-altitude adjustments may interfere with and aggravate/decompensate preexisting cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, we will provide practical recommendations on how to investigate and counsel patients with cardiovascular disease desiring to travel to high-altitude locations.