Visualization and quantitation of GLUT4 translocation in human skeletal muscle following glucose ingestion and exercise

Insulin- and contraction-stimulated increases in glucose uptake into skeletal
muscle occur in part as a result of the translocation of glucose transporter 4
(GLUT4) from intracellular stores to the plasma membrane (PM). This study
aimed to use immunofluorescence microscopy in human skeletal muscle to
quantify GLUT4 redistribution from intracellular stores to the PM in response
to glucose feeding and exercise. Percutaneous muscle biopsy samples were
taken from the m. vastus lateralis of ten insulin-sensitive men in the basal
state and following 30 min of cycling exercise (65% VO2 max). Muscle biopsy
samples were also taken from a second cohort of ten age-, BMI- and VO2 maxmatched insulin-sensitive men in the basal state and 30 and 60 min following
glucose feeding (75 g glucose). GLUT4 and dystrophin colocalization, measured
using the Pearson’s correlation coefficient, was increased following
30 min of cycling exercise (baseline r = 0.47 0.01; post exercise
r = 0.58 0.02; P < 0.001) and 30 min after glucose ingestion (baseline
r = 0.42 0.02; 30 min r = 0.46 0.02; P < 0.05). Large and small GLUT4
clusters were partially depleted following 30 min cycling exercise, but not
30 min after glucose feeding. This study has, for the first time, used immunofluorescence microscopy in human skeletal muscle to quantify increases in
GLUT4 and dystrophin colocalization and depletion of GLUT4 from large
and smaller clusters as evidence of net GLUT4 translocation to the PM.

Prolonged hyperinsulinemia affects metabolic signal transduction markers in a tissue specific manner

Insulin dysregulation is common in horses although the mechanisms of metabolic dysfunction are poorly understood. We hypothesized that insulin signaling in striated (cardiac and skeletal) muscle and lamellae may be mediated through different receptors as a result of receptor content, and that transcriptional regulation of downstream signal transduction and glucose transport may also differ between tissues sites during hyperinsulinemia. Archived samples from horses treated with a prolonged insulin infusion or a balanced electrolyte solution were used. All treated horses developed marked hyperinsulinemia and clinical laminitis. Protein expression was compared across tissues for the insulin receptor and insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-1R) by immunoblotting. Gene expression of metabolic insulin-signaling markers (insulin receptor substrate 1, Akt2, and glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta [GSK-3β]) and glucose transport (basal glucose transporter 1 and insulin-sensitive glucose transporter 4) was evaluated using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. Lamellar tissue contained significantly more IGF-1R protein than skeletal muscle, indicating the potential significance of IGF-1R signaling for this tissue. Gene expression of the selected markers of insulin signaling and glucose transport in skeletal muscle and lamellar tissues was unaffected by prolonged hyperinsulinemia. In contrast, the significant upregulation of Akt2, GSK-3β, GLUT1, and GLUT4 gene expression in cardiac tissue suggested that the prolonged hyperinsulinemia induced an increase in insulin sensitivity and a transcriptional activation of glucose transport. Responses to insulin are tissue-specific, and extrapolation of data across tissue sites is inappropriate.

Benefícios do treinamento intervalado de alta intensidade (natação) na obesidade (estudo experimental)

É um desafio na sociedade moderna controlar a obesidade e comorbidades associadas na população. O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar o impacto do treinamento intervalado de alta intensidade no contexto da obesidade induzida por dieta em modelo animal. Camundongos C57BL/6 foram alimentados com ração padrão (grupo magro - LE) ou dieta rica em gordura (grupo obeso - OB). Após 12 semanas, os animais foram divididos em grupos não treinados (LE-NT e OB-NT) e grupos treinados (LE-T e OB-T) e teve início um protocolo de exercício. Nos grupos treinados em comparação aos grupos não treinados observou-se que o treinamento intervalado de alta intensidade levou a reduções significativas na massa corporal, glicemia e tolerância oral à glicose, colesterol total, triglicérides, lipoproteína de baixa densidade-colesterol, aspartato transaminase e alanina aminotransferase no fígado. Além disso, nos grupos treinados, o protocolo de exercício melhorou a imunodensidade de insulina nas ilhotas, reduziu os níveis de citocinas inflamatórias, adiposidade e esteatose hepática. O treinamento de alta intensidade melhorou a beta-oxidação e os níveis de receptores ativados por proliferador de peroxissomo (PPAR)-alfa e reduziu os níveis de lipogênese e de PPAR-gama no fígado. No músculo esquelético, o treinamento de alta intensidade também melhorou o PPAR-alfa e transportador de glicose (GLUT) -4 e reduziu os níveis de PPAR-gama. Esses achados reforçam a noção de que o treinamento de alta intensidade é relevante como uma abordagem não farmacológica para controlar a resistência à insulina, glicemia, e esteatose hepática. Em conclusão, treinamento de alta intensidade leva à perda de massa corporal e pode atenuar os efeitos adversos causados pela ingestão crônica de uma dieta rica em gordura. Apesar de uma ingestão contínua dessa dieta, o treinamento de alta intensidade melhora as enzimas hepáticas e o perfil inflamatório.

Estudo da sinalização da insulina nos tecidos muscular e adiposo de ratos submetidos à desnutrição materna no início da lactação

Vários estudos sugerem que a desnutrição materna no período pós-natal poderia causar alterações na homeostase glicêmica da prole na vida adulta. Neste trabalho objetivamos investigar a interferência da programação metabólica induzida pela desnutrição protéica materna durante o início da lactação sobre a homeostase glicêmica e a sinalização da insulina nos tecidos muscular e adiposo. Animais desnutridos (D-dieta da mãe contendo 0% de proteína nos primeiros 10 dias de lactação) ou controle (C-dieta da mãe contendo 22% de proteína) foram estudados do nascimento até a vida adulta. Em resumo, observamos uma diminuição na insulina plasmática acompanhada de normoglicemia nos animais adultos desnutridos. A ativação do receptor de insulina (IR), após a estimulação com o hormônio apresentou-se diminuída durante o período de restrição protéica em músculo isolado destes animais experimentais. Durante o período da lactação, observamos uma diminuição na captação de glicose, na fosforilação do substrato para o receptor de insulina (IRS 1) e na translocação do GLUT 4 no tecido muscular. Na idade adulta, entretanto, houve aumento significativo na captação de glicose e translocação do GLUT 4 no músculo, associado com o aumento na expressão da PI3 quinase associada ao IRS 1. No tecido adiposo de ratos desnutridos adultos observamos menor fosforilação em tirosina tanto do IR quanto do IRS 1, que foi compensada pela maior ativação do IRS 2 e da PI3 quinase. Os níveis basais de pAkt e de GLUT 4 na membrana estavam aumentados, culminando em um aumento na captação de glicose. Observamos também uma redistribuição do citoesqueleto de actina e maior resistência aos efeitos da Ltrunculina B nos adipócitos dos ratos desnutridos. Em conclusão, este estudo demonstrou que a desnutrição materna no início da lactação é capaz de causar alterações na prole na vida adulta, o que parece estar relacionado com a expressão e ativação de proteínas chave na cascata da sinalização da insulina nos tecidos periféricos, importantes na regulação do metabolismo da glicose.

The impact of whey protein isolate on energy balance regulation

Using C57BL/6J mice fed whey protein isolate (WPI) enriched high fat (HFD) or low-fat diets (LFD), this study tested the hypothesis that WPI directly impacts on adiposity by influencing lipid metabolism. WPI suppressed HFD-induced body fat and increased lean mass at 8 weeks of dietary challenge despite elevated plasma triacylglycerol (TAG) levels, suggesting reduced TAG storage. WPI reduced HFD-associated hypothalamic leptin and insulin receptor (IR) mRNA expression, and prevented HFD-associated reductions in adipose tissue IR and glucose transporter 4 expression. These effects were largely absent at 21 weeks of HFD feeding, however WPI increased lean mass and cause a trend towards decreased fat mass, with notable increased Lactobacillus and decreased Clostridium gut bacterial species. Increasing the protein to carbohydrate ratio enhanced the above effects, and shifted the gut microbiota composition away from the HFD group. Seven weeks of WPI intake with a LFD decreased insulin signalling gene expression in the adipose tissue in association with an increased fat accumulation. WPI reduced intestinal weight and length, suggesting a potential functional relationship between WPI, gastro-intestinal morphology and insulin related signalling in the adipose. Extending the study to 15 weeks, did not affect adipose fat weight, but decreased energy intake, weight gain and intestinal length. The functionality of protein sensing lysophosphatidic acid receptor 5 (LPA5) in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes was assessed. Over-expression of the receptor in 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes provided a growth advantage to the cells and suppressed cellular differentiation into mature fat cells. In conclusion, the data demonstrates WPI impacts on adiposity by influencing lipid metabolism in a temporal manner, resulting possibly due to changes in lean mass, hypothalamic and adipose gene expression, gut microbiota and gastrointestinal morphology. The data also showed LPA5 is a novel candidate in regulating of preadipocyte growth and differentiation, and may mediate dietary protein effects on adipose tissue.

Cavin 1 and cavin 2 roles on adipocyte cell function

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Genética Molecular e Biomedicina

Étude des propriétés antidiabétiques de Nigella sativa : sites d’action cellulaires et moléculaires

Nigella sativa ou cumin noir est une plante et un condiment populaires. Les graines de N. sativa sont très utilisées en médecine traditionnelle des pays nord africains pour le traitement du diabète. Cependant, les mécanismes d'actions cellulaires et moléculaires via lesquels cette plante exerce son effet euglycémiant restent encore mal compris. Le but de notre étude est d'examiner l’effet de N. sativa sur la sécrétion d’insuline, le transport de glucose et sur les voies de signalisation impliquées dans l’homéostasie et le métabolisme de glucose, en utilisant des essais biologiques sur des cultures cellulaires murines (cellules β pancréatiques βTC, myoblastes C2C12, hépatocytes H4IIE et adipocytes 3T3-L1) et des études in vivo chez le rat normoglycémique et le Meriones shawi (rongeur) diabétique. Chez les cellules β pancréatiques, N. sativa a augmenté leur prolifération ainsi que la sécrétion basale et gluco-stimulée de l’insuline. N. sativa a augmenté aussi la prise de glucose de 50% chez les cellules musculaires alors que chez les cellules graisseuses, la prise de glucose est augmentée jusqu’au 400%. Les expériences d’immunobuvardage de type western ont montré que N. sativa stimule les voies de signalisation de l’insuline (Akt et ERKs) et aussi celle insulino-indépendante (AMPK) chez les cellules C2C12. Par contre, chez les 3T3-L1, l’augmentation de transport de glucose est plutôt reliée à une activation de la voie de peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ). Chez les hépatocytes, N. sativa augmente la stimulation des protéines intracellulaires Akt et 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Cette activation de l’AMPK est associée à un effet découpleur de la plante au niveau de la phosphorylation oxydative mitochondriale. Par ailleurs, chez les Meriones shawi diabétiques, N. sativa diminue graduellement la glycémie à jeun ainsi que la réponse glycémique (AUC) à une charge orale en glucose (OGTT) pour atteindre des valeurs semblables aux animaux témoins après quatre semaines de traitement. Une amélioration du profile lipidique est observée autant chez les Meriones shawi diabétiques que chez les rats normaux. Au niveau moléculaire, N. sativa augmente le contenu musculaire en glucose transporter 4 Glut4 et la phosphorylation de l’acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase ACC dans le muscle soléaire et le foie chez les Mériones shawi diabétiques. Par contre, chez le rat normal, on assiste à une stimulation des voies de signalisation de l’insuline (Akt et ERK) au niveau hépatique. En conclusion, nous avons confirmé l’action insulinotropique de N. sativa au niveau des cellules β pancréatiques et mis en évidence un effet proliférateur pouvant potentiellement s’avérer utile pour contrecarrer la perte de masse cellulaire observée chez les diabétiques. Notre étude a également mis en évidence pour la première fois que N. sativa exerce son activité antidiabétique par une combinaison d’effets insulino-mimétiques et insulino-sensibilisateurs directs permettant ainsi d’augmenter le transport de glucose des tissus périphériques. Cette action de N. sativa est liée à une stimulation des voies de signalisation intracellulaires insulinodépendantes et -indépendantes (AMPK) chez le muscle squelettique et le foie alors qu’elle passe par la voie des PPARγ au niveau du tissu adipeux. Finalement, l’étude in vivo vient confirmer l’effet antidiabétique de N. sativa. Notre apport novateur se situe au niveau de la démonstration que l’activité antidiabétique de N. sativa chez le Meriones shawi diabétique est la résultante des mêmes activités que celles déterminées au niveau de l’étude in vitro. En effet, N. sativa active la voie de l’AMPK, améliore la sensibilité à l’insuline et augmente l’insulinémie. Notre étude montre aussi que N. sativa possède une activité antilipidémiante. Ces résultats confirment le bien-fondé de l'utilisation ethnopharmacologique de N. sativa comme traitement du diabète et des perturbations du métabolisme lipidique qui y sont associées. De plus, les actions pléiotropiques de N. sativa en font un traitement alternatif ou complémentaire du diabète très prometteur qui encouragent à présent la tenue d’études cliniques de bonne qualité.

Glimepiride as insulin sensitizer: increased liver and muscle responses to insulin

Aim: Glimepiride, a low-potency insulin secretagogue, is as efficient on glycaemic control as other sulphonylureas, suggesting an additional insulin-sensitizer role. The aim of the present study was to confirm the insulin-sensitizer role of glimepiride and to show extra-pancreatic effects of the drug. Methods: Three-month-old monosodium glutamate (MSG)-induced obese insulin-resistant rats were treated (OG) or not treated (O) with glimepiride for 4 weeks and compared with age-matched non-obese rats (C). Insulin sensitivity in whole body, glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) protein content, glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis in oxidative skeletal muscle and phospho-glycogen synthase kinase (p-GSK3) and glycogen content in liver were analysed. Results: Insulin sensitivity, analysed by the insulin tolerance test, was 30% lower in O than in C rats (p < 0.05), and OG rats recovered this parameter (p < 0.05). In oxidative muscle, glimepiride increased the GLUT4 protein content (50%, p < 0.001) and recovered the obesity-induced reduction (similar to 20%) of the in vitro insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and incorporation into glycogen. In liver, glimepiride increased p-GSK3 (p < 0.01) and glycogen (p < 0.05) contents. Conclusion: The increased GLUT4 protein expression and glucose utilization in oxidative muscle and the increased insulin sensitivity and glycogen storage in liver evidence the insulin-sensitizer effect of glimepiride, which must be important to enable the glimepiride drug to promote an efficient glycaemic control.

beta-ADRENERGIC ACTIVITY PRESERVES GLUT4 PROTEIN IN GLYCOLYTIC FIBERS IN FASTING

Glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) expression in adipose tissue decreases during fasting. In skeletal muscle, we hypothesized that GLUT4 expression might be maintained in a beta-adrenergic-dependent way to ensure energy disposal for contractile function. Herein we investigate beta-blockade or beta-stimulation effects on GLUT4 expression in oxidative (soleus) and glycolytic [extensor digitorum longus (EDL)] muscles of fasted rats. Fasting increased GLUT4 mRNA in soleus (24%) and EDL (40%) but the protein content increased only in soleus (30%). beta 1-beta 2-, and beta 1-beta 2-beta 3-blockade decreased (20-30%) GLUT4 mRNA content in both muscles, although GLUT4 protein decreased only in EDL. When mRNA and GLUT4 protein regulations were discrepant, changes in the mRNA poly(A) tail length were detected, indicating a posttranscriptional modulation of gene expression. These results show that beta-adrenergic activity regulates GLUT4 gene expression in skeletal muscle during fasting, highlighting its participation in preservation of GLUT4 protein in glycolytic muscle. Muscle Nerve 40: 847-854, 2009

The measurement of GLUT4 translocation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is one of the fastest growing threats to human health in westernised and developing countries and is associated with central obesity, atherosclerosis, dyslipidaemia, hyperinsulinaemia and  hypertension. Insulin resistance, defined as a diminished response to ordinary levels of circulating insulin in one or more peripheral tissues, is an integral feature of T2D pathophysiology. This includes an impairment of insulin to inhibit hepatic glucose output and to stimulate glucose disposal into muscle and fat. While insulin is responsible for a number of specific biological responses, stimulation of glucose transport is critical for the maintenance of glucose homeostasis. The primary mechanism for insulin stimulation of glucose uptake into muscle and fat is the translocation of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) to the cell surface from intracellular storage vesicles within the cell. A major advantage in focussing on insulin regulation of glucose transport is that this represents the endpoint of multiple upstream signalling pathways. This chapter describes the measurement of GLUT4 translocation in cultured cells and its potential application for both  mechanistic and therapeutic studies.

Reduced glycogen availability is associated with increased AMPKα2 activity, nuclear AMPKα2 protein abundance, and GLUT4 mRNA expression in contracting human skeletal muscle

Glycogen availability can influence glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) expression in skeletal muscle through unknown mechanisms. The multisubstrate enzyme AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) has also been shown to play an important role in the regulation of GLUT4 expression in skeletal muscle. During contraction, AMPK [alpha]2 translocates to the nucleus and the activity of this AMPK isoform is enhanced when skeletal muscle glycogen is low. In this study, we investigated if decreased pre-exercise muscle glycogen levels and increased AMPK [alpha]2 activity reduced the association of AMPK with glycogen and increased AMPK [alpha]2 translocation to the nucleus and GLUT4 mRNA expression following exercise. Seven males performed 60 min of exercise at ~70% [VO.sub.2] peak on 2 occasions: either with normal (control) or low (LG) carbohydrate pre-exercise muscle glycogen content. Muscle samples were obtained by needle biopsy before and after exercise. Low muscle glycogen was associated with elevated AMPK [alpha]2 activity and acetyl-CoA carboxylase [beta] phosphorylation, increased translocation of AMPK [alpha]2 to the nucleus, and increased GLUT4 mRNA. Transfection of primary human myotubes with a constitutively active AMPK adenovirus also stimulated GLUT4 mRNA, providing direct evidence of a role of AMPK in regulating GLUT4 expression. We suggest that increased activation of AMPK [alpha]2 under conditions of low muscle glycogen enhances AMPK [alpha]2 nuclear translocation and increases GLUT4 mRNA expression in response to exercise in human skeletal muscle.

Endurance training improves responsiveness to insulin and modulates insulin signal transduction through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt-1 pathway

Background: Endurance training increases insulin-stimulated muscle glucose transport and leads to improved metabolic control in diabetic patients.Objective: To analyze the effects of endurance training on the early steps of insulin action in muscle of rats. Design: Male rats submitted to daily swimming for 6 weeks were compared with sedentary controls. At the end of the training period, anesthetized animals received an intravenous (i.v.) injection of insulin and had a fragment of their gastrocnemius muscle excised for the experiments.Methods: Associations between insulin receptor, insulin receptor substrates (IRS)-1 and -2 and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-kinase) were analyzed by immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting. Akt-1 serine phosphorylation and specific protein quantification were detected by immunoblotting of total extracts, and IRS-1/IRS-2-associated PI3-kinase activity were determined by thin-layer chromatography.Results: Insulin-induced phosphorylation of IRS-1 and IRS-2 increased respectively by 1.8-fold (P < 0.05) and 1.5-fold (P < 0.05), whereas their association with PI3-kinase increased by 2.3-fold (P < 0.05) and 1.9-fold (P < 0.05) in trained rats as compared with sedentary controls, respectively. The activity of PI3-kinase associated with IRS-1 and IRS-2 increased by 1.8-fold (P < 0.05) and 1.7-fold (P < 0.05) respectively, in trained rats as compared with their untrained counterparts. Serine phosphorylation of Akt-1/PKB increased 1.7-fold (P < 0.05) in trained rats in response to insulin. These findings were accompanied by increased responsiveness to insulin as demonstrated by a reduced area under the curve for insulin during an i.v. glucose tolerance test, by increased glucose disappearance rate during an insulin tolerance test, and by increased expression of glucose transporter-4.Conclusions: the increased responsiveness to insulin induced by chronic exercise in rat skeletal muscle may result, at least in part, from the modulation of the insulin signaling pathway at different molecular levels.

Age related obesity-induced shortening of GLUT4 mRNA poly(A) tail length in rat gastrocnemius skeletal muscle

Obese insulin resistant animals and humans have shown reduced GLUT4 gene expression. Yet, in skeletal muscle, discrepancy between mRNA and protein regulation has been frequently observed, suggesting a post-transcriptional modulation. We investigated the GLUT4 expression in adipose tissue and muscle of obese 12-month-old (12-mo) rats, comparing with lean 2-month-old (2-mo) animals. Obesity was accompanied by insulin resistance, and 65% reduction (P < 0.01) in GLUT4 mRNA and protein in adipose tissue. However, in muscle, despite increased (P < 0.05) mRNA content, GLUT4 protein was unchanged. RNase H and poly(A) test assays showed a reduction (P < 0.01) of ∼80 adenines in the GLUT4 mRNA poly(A) tail of muscle from 12-mo rats, recognizing that the poly(A) tail length correlates with translation efficiency. Concluding, age related obesity of 12-mo rats involves suppression of GLUT4 expression in adipose tissue; however, in muscle, GLUT4 mRNA content increases, but with a shorter poly(A) tail, thus unchanging the protein content. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Energy Metabolism in Cardiac Remodeling and Heart Failure

Fatty acids are the main substrates used by mitochondria to provide myocardial energy under normal conditions. During heart remodeling, however, the fuel preference switches to glucose. In the earlier stages of cardiac remodeling, changes in energy metabolism are considered crucial to protect the heart from irreversible damage. Furthermore, low fatty acid oxidation and the stimulus for glycolytic pathway lead to lipotoxicity, acidosis, and low adenosine triphosphate production. While myocardial function is directly associated with energy metabolism, the metabolic pathways could be potential targets for therapy in heart failure. © 2013 by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

GLUT4 content decreases along with insulin resistance and high levels of inflammatory markers in rats with metabolic syndrome

Background: Metabolic syndrome is characterized by insulin resistance, which is closely related to GLUT4 content in insulin-sensitive tissues. Thus, we evaluated the GLUT4 expression, insulin resistance and inflammation, characteristics of the metabolic syndrome, in an experimental model. Methods: Spontaneously hypertensive neonate rats (18/group) were treated with monosodium glutamate (MetS) during 9 days, and compared with Wistar-Kyoto (C) and saline-treated SHR (H). Blood pressure (BP) and lipid levels, C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin 6 (IL-6), TNF-alpha and adiponectin were evaluated. GLUT4 protein was analysed in the heart, white adipose tissue and gastrocnemius. Studies were performed at 3 (3-mo), 6 (6-mo) and 9 (9-mo) months of age. Results: MetS rats were more insulin resistant (p<0.001, all ages) and had higher BP (3-mo: p<0.001, 6-mo: p = 0.001, 9-mo: p = 0.015) as compared to C. At 6 months, CRP, IL-6 and TNF-alpha were higher (p<0.001, all comparisons) in MetS rats vs H, but adiponectin was lower in MetS at 9 months (MetS: 32 +/- 2, H: 42 +/- 2, C: 45 +/- 2 pg/mL; p<0.001). GLUT4 protein was reduced in MetS as compared to C rats at 3, 6 and 9-mo, respectively (Heart: 54%, 50% and 57%; Gastrocnemius: 37%, 56% and 50%; Adipose tissue: 69%, 61% and 69%). Conclusions: MSG-treated SHR presented all metabolic syndrome characteristics, as well as reduced GLUT4 content, which must play a key role in the impaired glycemic homeostasis of the metabolic syndrome.