An experimental examination of fiber reinforcing effect with a novel composite specimen

This paper introduces a simple fiber/tape composite that is easy to prepare and structurally more uniform. This novel composite provides a good alternative standard composite sample for experimental study of various phenomena and issues in fiber reinforced composite behaviors. Experimental results in the present work demonstrate how the fiber fragmentation, fiber-reinforcing effect and the gauge length effect can be successfully evaluated by using this novel composite specimen.

Manufacturing influence on the delamination fracture behavior of the T800H/3900-2 carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites

'Torayca' T800H/3900-2 is the first material qualified on Boeing Material Specification (BMS 8-276) which utilizes the thermoplastic-particulate interlayer toughening technology. Two manufacturing processes, the autoclave process and the fast heating rated Quickstep™ process, were employed to cure this material. The Quickstep process is a unique composite production technology which utilizes the fast heat transfer rate of fluid to heat and cure polymer composite components. The manufacturing influence on the mode I delamination fracture toughness of laminates was investigated by performing double cantilever beam tests. The composite specimens fabricated by two processes exhibited dissimilar delamination resistance curves (R-curves) under mode I loading. The initial value of fracture toughness GIC-INIT was 564 J/m2 for the autoclave specimens and 527 J/m2 for the Quickstep specimens. However, the average propagation fracture toughness GIC-PROP was 783 J/m2 for the Quickstep specimens, which was 2.6 times of that for the autoclave specimens. The mechanism of fracture occurred during delamination was studied under scanning electron microscope (SEM). Three types of fracture were observed: the interlayer fracture, the interface fracture, and the intralaminar fracture. These three types of fracture played different roles in affecting the delamination resistance curves during the crack growth. More fiber bridging was found in the process of delamination for the Quickstep specimens. Better fiber/matrix adhesion was found in the Quickstep specimens by conducting indentation-debond tests.

Objective surface evaluation of fiber reinforced polymer composites

The mechanical properties of advanced composites are essential for their structural performance, but the surface finish on exterior composite panels is of critical importance for customer satisfaction. This paper describes the application of wavelet texture analysis (WTA) to the task of automatically classifying the surface finish properties of two fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite construction types (clear resin and gel-coat) into three quality grades. Samples were imaged and wavelet multi-scale decomposition was used to create a visual texture representation of the sample, capturing image features at different scales and orientations. Principal components analysis was used to reduce the dimensionality of the texture feature vector, permitting successful classification of the samples using only the first principal component. This work extends and further validates the feasibility of this approach as the basis for automated non-contact classification of composite surface finish using image analysis.

Suitability of carbon fiber-reinforced polymers as power cable cores: Galvanic corrosion and thermal stability evaluation

The increasing demand for electrical energy and the difficulties involved in installing new transmission lines presents a global challenge. Transmission line cables need to conduct more current, which creates the problem of excessive cable sag and limits the distance between towers. Therefore, it is necessary to develop new cables that have low thermal expansion coefficients, low densities, and high resistance to mechanical stress and corrosion. Continuous fiber-reinforced polymers are now widely used in many industries, including electrical utilities, and provide properties that are superior to those of traditional ACSR (aluminum conductor steel reinforced) cables. Although composite core cables show good performance in terms of corrosion, the contact of carbon fibers with aluminum promotes galvanic corrosion, which compromises mechanical performance. In this work, three different fiber coatings were tested (phenol formaldehyde resin, epoxy-based resin, and epoxy resin with polyester braiding), with measurements of the galvanic current. The use of epoxy resin combined with polyester braiding provided the best inhibition of galvanic corrosion. Investigation of thermal stability revealed that use of phenol formaldehyde resin resulted in a higher glass transition temperature. On the other hand, a post-cure process applied to epoxy-based resin enabled it to achieve glass transition temperatures of up to 200 degrees C. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Effects of curing protocol and storage time on the micro-hardness of resin cements used to lute fiber-reinforced resin posts

Objectives: To determine the micro-hardness profile of two dual cure resin cements (RelyX - U100 (R), 3M-ESPE and Panavia F 2.0 (R), Kuraray) used for cementing fiber-reinforced resin posts (Fibrekor (R) - Jeneric Pentron) under three different curing protocols and two water storage times. Material and methods: Sixty 16mm long bovine incisor roots were endodontically treated and prepared for cementation of the Fibrekor posts. The cements were mixed as instructed, dispensed in the canal, the posts were seated and the curing performed as follows: a) no light activation; b) light-activation immediately after seating the post, and; c) light-activation delayed 5 minutes after seating the post. The teeth were stored in water and retrieved for analysis after 7 days and 3 months. The roots were longitudinally sectioned and the microhardness was determined at the cervical, middle and apical regions along the cement line. The data was analyzed by the three-way ANOVA test (curing mode, storage time and thirds) for each cement. The Tukey test was used for the post-hoc analysis. Results: Light-activation resulted in a significant increase in the microhardness. This was more evident for the cervical region and for the Panavia cement. Storage in water for 3 months caused a reduction of the micro-hardness for both cements. The U100 cement showed less variation in the micro-hardness regardless of the curing protocol and storage time. Conclusions: The micro-hardness of the cements was affected by the curing and storage variables and were material-dependent.

Processing and mechanical properties evaluation of glass fiber-reinforced PTFE laminates

A specific manufacturing process to obtain continuous glass fiber-reinforced RIFE laminates was studied and some of their mechanical properties were evaluated. Young's modulus and maximum strength were measured by three-point bending test and tensile test using the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique. Adhesion tests, thermal analysis and microscopy were used to evaluate the fiber-matrix adhesion, which is very dependent on the sintering time. The composite material obtained had a Young's modulus of 14.2 GPa and ultimate strength of 165 MPa, which corresponds to approximately 24 times the modulus and six times the ultimate strength of pure RIFE. These results show that the RIFE composite, manufactured under specific conditions, has great potential to provide structural parts with a performance suitable for application in structural components. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Natural fiber-reinforced thermoplastic starch composites obtained by melt processing

Thermoplastic starch (TPS) from industrial non-modified corn starch was obtained and reinforced with natural strands. The influence of the reinforcement on physical-chemical properties of the composites obtained by melt processing has been analyzed. For this purpose, composites reinforced with different amounts of either sisal or hemp strands have been prepared and evaluated in terms of crystallinity, water sorption, thermal and mechanical properties. The results showed that the incorporation of sisal or hemp strands caused an increase in the glass transition temperature (T-g) of the TPS as determined by DMTA. The reinforcement also increased the stiffness of the material, as reflected in both the storage modulus and the Young's modulus. Intrinsic mechanical properties of the reinforcing fibers showed a lower effect on the final mechanical properties of the materials than their homogeneity and distribution within the matrix. Additionally, the addition of a natural latex plasticizer to the composite decreased the water absorption kinetics without affecting significantly the thermal and mechanical properties of the material. (c) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Experimental analysis of fiber reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) confined masonry columns

The increasing use of Fiber Reinforced methods for strengthening existing brick masonry walls and columns, especially for the rehabilitation of historical buildings, has generated considerable research interest in understanding the failure mechanism in such systems. This dissertation is aimed to provide a basic understanding of the behavior of solid brick masonry walls unwrapped and wrapped with Fiber Reinforced Cementitious Matrix Composites. This is a new type of composite material, commonly known as FRCM, featuring a cementitious inorganic matrix (binder) instead of the more common epoxy one. The influence of the FRCM-reinforcement on the load-carrying capacity and strain distribution during compression test will be investigated using a full-field optical technique known as Digital Image Correlation. Compression test were carried on 6 clay bricks columns and on 7 clay brick walls in three different configuration, casted using bricks scaled respect the first one with a ratio 1:2, in order to determinate the effects of FRCM reinforcement. The goal of the experimental program is to understand how the behavior of brick masonry will be improved by the FRCM-wrapping. The results indicate that there is an arching action zone represented in the form of a parabola with a varying shape according to the used configuration. The area under the parabolas is considered as ineffectively confined. The effectively confined area is assumed to occur within the region where the arching action had been fully developed.

Fiber-reinforced ceramics for thermostructural applications, produced by polymer impregnation pyrolysis

Several CFCC (Continuous Fiber Composite Ceramics) production processes were tested, concluding that PIP (Polymer Impregnation, or Infiltration, Pyrolysis) and CBC (Chemically Bonded Ceramics) based procedures have interesting potential applications in the construction and transportation fields, thanks to low costs to get potentially useful thermomechanical performances. Among the different processes considered during the Doctorate (from the synthesis of new preceramic polymers, to the PIP production of SiC / SiC composites) the more promising results came from the PIP process with poly-siloxanes on basalt fabrics preforms. Low processing time and costs, together with fairly good thermomechanical properties were demonstrated, even after only one or two PIP steps in nitrogen flow. In alternative, pyrolysis in vacuum was also tested, a procedure still not discussed in literature, but which could originate an interesting reduction of production costs, with only a moderate detrimental effect on the mechanical properties. The resulting CFCC is a basalt / SiCO composite that can be applied for continuous operation up to 600°C, also in oxidant environment, as TG and XRD demonstrated. The failure upon loading is generally pseudo-plastic, being interlaminar delamination the most probable rupture mechanism. . The strength depends on several different factors (microstructure, polymer curing and subsequent ceramic phase evolution, fiber pull-out, fiber strength, fiber percentage) and can only be optimized empirically. In order to be open minded in selecting the best technology, also CBC (Chemically Bonded Ceramics) matrixes were considered during this Doctorate, making some preliminary investigations on fire-resistant phosphate cements. Our results on a commercial product evidenced some interesting thermomechanical capabilities, even after thermal treatments. However the experiments showed also phase change and possible cracking and deformations even on slow drying (at 130°C) and easy rehydration upon exposure to environmental humidity.

Experimental characterization of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer laminates

The goal of this thesis is to make static tensile test on four Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer laminates, in such a way as to obtain the ultimate tensile strength of these laminates; in particular, the laminates analyzed were produced by Hand Lay-up technology. Testing these laminates we have a reference point on which to compare other laminates and in particular CFRP laminate produced by RTM technology.

Teeth restored using fiber-reinforced posts: in vitro fracture tests and finite element analysis

In dentistry the restoration of decayed teeth is challenging and makes great demands on both the dentist and the materials. Hence, fiber-reinforced posts have been introduced. The effects of different variables on the ultimate load on teeth restored using fiber-reinforced posts is controversial, maybe because the results are mostly based on non-standardized in vitro tests and, therefore, give inhomogeneous results. This study combines the advantages of in vitro tests and finite element analysis (FEA) to clarify the effects of ferrule height, post length and cementation technique used for restoration. Sixty-four single rooted premolars were decoronated (ferrule height 1 or 2 mm), endodontically treated and restored using fiber posts (length 2 or 7 mm), composite fillings and metal crowns (resin bonded or cemented). After thermocycling and chewing simulation the samples were loaded until fracture, recording first damage events. Using UNIANOVA to analyze recorded fracture loads, ferrule height and cementation technique were found to be significant, i.e. increased ferrule height and resin bonding of the crown resulted in higher fracture loads. Post length had no significant effect. All conventionally cemented crowns with a 1-mm ferrule height failed during artificial ageing, in contrast to resin-bonded crowns (75% survival rate). FEA confirmed these results and provided information about stress and force distribution within the restoration. Based on the findings of in vitro tests and computations we concluded that crowns, especially those with a small ferrule height, should be resin bonded. Finally, centrally positioned fiber-reinforced posts did not contribute to load transfer as long as the bond between the tooth and composite core was intact.

Failure and impact behavior of facade panels made of glass fiber reinforced cement(GRC)

GRC is a cementitious composite material made up of a cement mortar matrix and chopped glass fibers. Due to its outstanding mechanical properties, GRC has been widely used to produce cladding panels and some civil engineering elements. Impact failure of cladding panels made of GRC may occur during production if some tool falls onto the panel, due to stone or other objects impacting at low velocities or caused by debris projected after a blast. Impact failure of a front panel of a building may have not only an important economic value but also human lives may be at risk if broken pieces of the panel fall from the building to the pavement. Therefore, knowing GRC impact strength is necessary to prevent economic costs and putting human lives at risk. One-stage light gas gun is an impact test machine capable of testing different materials subjected to impact loads. An experimental program was carried out, testing GRC samples of five different formulations, commonly used in building industry. Steel spheres were shot at different velocities on square GRC samples. The residual velocity of the projectiles was obtained both using a high speed camera with multiframe exposure and measuring the projectile’s penetration depth in molding clay blocks. Tests were performed on young and artificially aged GRC samples to compare GRC’s behavior when subjected to high strain rates. Numerical simulations using a hydrocode were made to analyze which parameters are most important during an impact event. GRC impact strength was obtained from test results. Also, GRC’s embrittlement, caused by GRC aging, has no influence on GRC impact behavior due to the small size of the projectile. Also, glass fibers used in GRC production only maintain GRC panels’ integrity but have no influence on GRC’s impact strength. Numerical models have reproduced accurately impact tests.

Curing, defects and mechanical performance of fiber-reinforced composites

Tradicionalmente, la fabricación de materiales compuestos de altas prestaciones se lleva a cabo en autoclave mediante la consolidación de preimpregnados a través de la aplicación simultánea de altas presiones y temperatura. Las elevadas presiones empleadas en autoclave reducen la porosidad de los componentes garantizando unas buenas propiedades mecánicas. Sin embargo, este sistema de fabricación conlleva tiempos de producción largos y grandes inversiones en equipamiento lo que restringe su aplicación a otros sectores alejados del sector aeronáutico. Este hecho ha generado una creciente demanda de sistemas de fabricación alternativos al autoclave. Aunque estos sistemas son capaces de reducir los tiempos de producción y el gasto energético, por lo general, dan lugar a materiales con menores prestaciones mecánicas debido a que se reduce la compactación del material al aplicar presiones mas bajas y, por tanto, la fracción volumétrica de fibras, y disminuye el control de la porosidad durante el proceso. Los modelos numéricos existentes permiten conocer los fundamentos de los mecanismos de crecimiento de poros durante la fabricación de materiales compuestos de matriz polimérica mediante autoclave. Dichos modelos analizan el comportamiento de pequeños poros esféricos embebidos en una resina viscosa. Su validez no ha sido probada, sin embargo, para la morfología típica observada en materiales compuestos fabricados fuera de autoclave, consistente en poros cilíndricos y alargados embebidos en resina y rodeados de fibras continuas. Por otro lado, aunque existe una clara evidencia experimental del efecto pernicioso de la porosidad en las prestaciones mecánicas de los materiales compuestos, no existe información detallada sobre la influencia de las condiciones de procesado en la forma, fracción volumétrica y distribución espacial de los poros en los materiales compuestos. Las técnicas de análisis convencionales para la caracterización microestructural de los materiales compuestos proporcionan información en dos dimensiones (2D) (microscopía óptica y electrónica, radiografía de rayos X, ultrasonidos, emisión acústica) y sólo algunas son adecuadas para el análisis de la porosidad. En esta tesis, se ha analizado el efecto de ciclo de curado en el desarrollo de los poros durante la consolidación de preimpregnados Hexply AS4/8552 a bajas presiones mediante moldeo por compresión, en paneles unidireccionales y multiaxiales utilizando tres ciclos de curado diferentes. Dichos ciclos fueron cuidadosamente diseñados de acuerdo a la caracterización térmica y reológica de los preimpregnados. La fracción volumétrica de poros, su forma y distribución espacial se analizaron en detalle mediante tomografía de rayos X. Esta técnica no destructiva ha demostrado su capacidad para analizar la microestructura de materiales compuestos. Se observó, que la porosidad depende en gran medida de la evolución de la viscosidad dinámica a lo largo del ciclo y que la mayoría de la porosidad inicial procedía del aire atrapado durante el apilamiento de las láminas de preimpregnado. En el caso de los laminados multiaxiales, la porosidad también se vio afectada por la secuencia de apilamiento. En general, los poros tenían forma cilíndrica y se estaban orientados en la dirección de las fibras. Además, la proyección de la población de poros a lo largo de la dirección de la fibra reveló la existencia de una estructura celular de un diámetro aproximado de 1 mm. Las paredes de las celdas correspondían con regiones con mayor densidad de fibra mientras que los poros se concentraban en el interior de las celdas. Esta distribución de la porosidad es el resultado de una consolidación no homogenea. Toda esta información es crítica a la hora de optimizar las condiciones de procesado y proporcionar datos de partida para desarrollar herramientas de simulación de los procesos de fabricación de materiales compuestos fuera de autoclave. Adicionalmente, se determinaron ciertas propiedades mecánicas dependientes de la matriz termoestable con objeto de establecer la relación entre condiciones de procesado y las prestaciones mecánicas. En el caso de los laminados unidireccionales, la resistencia interlaminar depende de la porosidad para fracciones volumétricas de poros superiores 1%. Las mismas tendencias se observaron en el caso de GIIc mientras GIc no se vio afectada por la porosidad. En el caso de los laminados multiaxiales se evaluó la influencia de la porosidad en la resistencia a compresión, la resistencia a impacto a baja velocidad y la resistencia a copresión después de impacto. La resistencia a compresión se redujo con el contenido en poros, pero éste no influyó significativamente en la resistencia a compresión despues de impacto ya que quedó enmascarada por otros factores como la secuencia de apilamiento o la magnitud del daño generado tras el impacto. Finalmente, el efecto de las condiciones de fabricación en el proceso de compactación mediante moldeo por compresión en laminados unidireccionales fue simulado mediante el método de los elementos finitos en una primera aproximación para simular la fabricación de materiales compuestos fuera de autoclave. Los parámetros del modelo se obtuvieron mediante experimentos térmicos y reológicos del preimpregnado Hexply AS4/8552. Los resultados obtenidos en la predicción de la reducción de espesor durante el proceso de consolidación concordaron razonablemente con los resultados experimentales. Manufacturing of high performance polymer-matrix composites is normally carried out by means of autoclave using prepreg tapes stacked and consolidated under the simultaneous application of pressure and temperature. High autoclave pressures reduce the porosity in the laminate and ensure excellent mechanical properties. However, this manufacturing route is expensive in terms of capital investment and processing time, hindering its application in many industrial sectors. This fact has driven the demand of alternative out-of-autoclave processing routes. These techniques claim to produce composite parts faster and at lower cost but the mechanical performance is also reduced due to the lower fiber content and to the higher porosity. Corrient numerical models are able to simulate the mechanisms of void growth in polymer-matrix composites processed in autoclave. However these models are restricted to small spherical voids surrounded by a viscous resin. Their validity is not proved for long cylindrical voids in a viscous matrix surrounded by aligned fibers, the standard morphology observed in out-of-autoclave composites. In addition, there is an experimental evidence of the detrimental effect of voids on the mechanical performance of composites but, there is detailed information regarding the influence of curing conditions on the actual volume fraction, shape and spatial distribution of voids within the laminate. The standard techniques of microstructural characterization of composites (optical or electron microscopy, X-ray radiography, ultrasonics) provide information in two dimensions and are not always suitable to determine the porosity or void population. Moreover, they can not provide 3D information. The effect of curing cycle on the development of voids during consolidation of AS4/8552 prepregs at low pressure by compression molding was studied in unidirectional and multiaxial panels. They were manufactured using three different curing cycles carefully designed following the rheological and thermal analysis of the raw prepregs. The void volume fraction, shape and spatial distribution were analyzed in detail by means of X-ray computed microtomography, which has demonstrated its potential for analyzing the microstructural features of composites. It was demonstrated that the final void volume fraction depended on the evolution of the dynamic viscosity throughout the cycle. Most of the initial voids were the result of air entrapment and wrinkles created during lay-up. Differences in the final void volume fraction depended on the processing conditions for unidirectional and multiaxial panels. Voids were rod-like shaped and were oriented parallel to the fibers and concentrated in channels along the fiber orientation. X-ray computer tomography analysis of voids along the fiber direction showed a cellular structure with an approximate cell diameter of 1 mm. The cell walls were fiber-rich regions and porosity was localized at the center of the cells. This porosity distribution within the laminate was the result of inhomogeneous consolidation. This information is critical to optimize processing parameters and to provide inputs for virtual testing and virtual processing tools. In addition, the matrix-controlled mechanical properties of the panels were measured in order to establish the relationship between processing conditions and mechanical performance. The interlaminar shear strength (ILSS) and the interlaminar toughness (GIc and GIIc) were selected to evaluate the effect of porosity on the mechanical performance of unidirectional panels. The ILSS was strongly affected by the porosity when the void contents was higher than 1%. The same trends were observed in the case of GIIc while GIc was insensitive to the void volume fraction. Additionally, the mechanical performance of multiaxial panels in compression, low velocity impact and compression after impact (CAI) was measured to address the effect of processing conditions. The compressive strength decreased with porosity and ply-clustering. However, the porosity did not influence the impact resistance and the coompression after impact strength because the effect of porosity was masked by other factors as the damage due to impact or the laminate lay-up. Finally, the effect of the processing conditions on the compaction behavior of unidirectional AS4/8552 panels manufactured by compression moulding was simulated using the finite element method, as a first approximation to more complex and accurate models for out-of autoclave curing and consolidation of composite laminates. The model parameters were obtained from rheological and thermo-mechanical experiments carried out in raw prepreg samples. The predictions of the thickness change during consolidation were in reasonable agreement with the experimental results.

Intraply fracture of fiber-reinforced composites: microscopic mechanisms and modeling

The fracture behavior parallel to the fibers of an E-glass/epoxy unidirectional laminate was studied by means of three-point tests on notched beams. Selected tests were carried out within a scanning electron microscope to ascertain the damage and fracture micromechanisms upon loading. The mechanical behavior of the notched beam was simulated within the framework of the embedded cell model, in which the actual composite microstructure was resolved in front of the notch tip. In addition, matrix and interface properties were independently measured in situ using a nanoindentor. The numerical simulations very accurately predicted the macroscopic response of the composite as well as the damage development and crack growth in front of the notch tip, demonstrating the ability of the embedded cell approach to simulate the fracture behavior of heterogeneous materials. Finally, this methodology was exploited to ascertain the influence of matrix and interface properties on the intraply toughness.

High fidelity simulations of failure in fiber-reinforced composites

Los ensayos virtuales de materiales compuestos han aparecido como un nuevo concepto dentro de la industria aeroespacial, y disponen de un vasto potencial para reducir los enormes costes de certificación y desarrollo asociados con las tediosas campañas experimentales, que incluyen un gran número de paneles, subcomponentes y componentes. El objetivo de los ensayos virtuales es sustituir algunos ensayos por simulaciones computacionales con alta fidelidad. Esta tesis es una contribución a la aproximación multiescala desarrollada en el Instituto IMDEA Materiales para predecir el comportamiento mecánico de un laminado de material compuesto dadas las propiedades de la lámina y la intercara. La mecánica de daño continuo (CDM) formula el daño intralaminar a nivel constitutivo de material. El modelo de daño intralaminar se combina con elementos cohesivos para representar daño interlaminar. Se desarrolló e implementó un modelo de daño continuo, y se aplicó a configuraciones simples de ensayos en laminados: impactos de baja y alta velocidad, ensayos de tracción, tests a cortadura. El análisis del método y la correlación con experimentos sugiere que los métodos son razonablemente adecuados para los test de impacto, pero insuficientes para el resto de ensayos. Para superar estas limitaciones de CDM, se ha mejorado la aproximación discreta de elementos finitos enriqueciendo la cinemática para incluir discontinuidades embebidas: el método extendido de los elementos finitos (X-FEM). Se adaptó X-FEM para un esquema explícito de integración temporal. El método es capaz de representar cualitativamente los mecanismos de fallo detallados en laminados. Sin embargo, los resultados muestran inconsistencias en la formulación que producen resultados cuantitativos erróneos. Por último, se ha revisado el método tradicional de X-FEM, y se ha desarrollado un nuevo método para superar sus limitaciones: el método cohesivo X-FEM estable. Las propiedades del nuevo método se estudiaron en detalle, y se concluyó que el método es robusto para implementación en códigos explícitos dinámicos escalables, resultando una nueva herramienta útil para la simulación de daño en composites. Virtual testing of composite materials has emerged as a new concept within the aerospace industry. It presents a very large potential to reduce the large certification costs and the long development times associated with the experimental campaigns, involving the testing of a large number of panels, sub-components and components. The aim of virtual testing is to replace some experimental tests by high-fidelity numerical simulations. This work is a contribution to the multiscale approach developed in Institute IMDEA Materials to predict the mechanical behavior of a composite laminate from the properties of the ply and the interply. Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) formulates intraply damage at the the material constitutive level. Intraply CDM is combined with cohesive elements to model interply damage. A CDM model was developed, implemented, and applied to simple mechanical tests of laminates: low and high velocity impact, tension of coupons, and shear deformation. The analysis of the results and the comparison with experiments indicated that the performance was reasonably good for the impact tests, but insuficient in the other cases. To overcome the limitations of CDM, the kinematics of the discrete finite element approximation was enhanced to include mesh embedded discontinuities, the eXtended Finite Element Method (X-FEM). The X-FEM was adapted to an explicit time integration scheme and was able to reproduce qualitatively the physical failure mechanisms in a composite laminate. However, the results revealed an inconsistency in the formulation that leads to erroneous quantitative results. Finally, the traditional X-FEM was reviewed, and a new method was developed to overcome its limitations, the stable cohesive X-FEM. The properties of the new method were studied in detail, and it was demonstrated that the new method was robust and can be implemented in a explicit finite element formulation, providing a new tool for damage simulation in composite materials.