Experimental evaluation of the culture performance of three exotic and a ‘local’ Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii, De Man 1879) culture strain in Fiji

Giant freshwater prawn (GFP; Macrobrachium rosenbergii) aquaculture has expanded rapidly since 1990. Most local culture industries, however, have developed in an unsystematic way. Fiji has a small culture industry producing the ‘Anuenue’ strain; however, performance of this strain has never been systematically evaluated. Recently, some Fijian farmers have reported declines in stock productivity. The current project evaluated the relative performance of three exotic strains with different genetic backgrounds from Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam, against the ‘local’ strain in Fiji in a 4 × 3 replicated pond trial experiment. A total of 5827 prawns were harvested after 143 days growout. Individual growth rate and relative survival of the Fiji strain were not statistically different from any of the introduced strains, but Vietnam strain was superior to that of the Malaysia strain. Genetic diversity showed significant differences in variability among strains, with the Malaysian strain displaying the lowest genetic diversity. Indonesia strain showed that females were reaching maturation earlier than other strains and were smaller in size. This study suggests that Malaysian and Indonesian strains would constitute a poor choice for Fiji, whereas the Vietnam strain consistently performed well on all criteria measured. High variation among replicate ponds within strains unfortunately confounded among-strain variation.

Predicting invasion in grassland ecosystems: is exotic dominance the real embarrassment of richness?

Invasions have increased the size of regional species pools, but are typically assumed to reduce native diversity. However, global-scale tests of this assumption have been elusive because of the focus on exotic species richness, rather than relative abundance. This is problematic because low invader richness can indicate invasion resistance by the native community or, alternatively, dominance by a single exotic species. Here, we used a globally replicated study to quantify relationships between exotic richness and abundance in grass-dominated ecosystems in 13 countries on six continents, ranging from salt marshes to alpine tundra. We tested effects of human land use, native community diversity, herbivore pressure, and nutrient limitation on exotic plant dominance. Despite its widespread use, exotic richness was a poor proxy for exotic dominance at low exotic richness, because sites that contained few exotic species ranged from relatively pristine (low exotic richness and cover) to almost completely exotic-dominated ones (low exotic richness but high exotic cover). Both exotic cover and richness were predicted by native plant diversity (native grass richness) and land use (distance to cultivation). Although climate was important for predicting both exotic cover and richness, climatic factors predicting cover (precipitation variability) differed from those predicting richness (maximum temperature and mean temperature in the wettest quarter). Herbivory and nutrient limitation did not predict exotic richness or cover. Exotic dominance was greatest in areas with low native grass richness at the site- or regional-scale. Although this could reflect native grass displacement, a lack of biotic resistance is a more likely explanation, given that grasses comprise the most aggressive invaders. These findings underscore the need to move beyond richness as a surrogate for the extent of invasion, because this metric confounds monodominance with invasion resistance. Monitoring species' relative abundance will more rapidly advance our understanding of invasions.

Anthropogenic-based regional-scale factors most consistently explain plot-level exotic diversity in grasslands

Aim Evidence linking the accumulation of exotic species to the suppression of native diversity is equivocal, often relying on data from studies that have used different methods. Plot-level studies often attribute inverse relationships between native and exotic diversity to competition, but regional abiotic filters, including anthropogenic influences, can produce similar patterns.We seek to test these alternatives using identical scale-dependent sampling protocols in multiple grasslands on two continents. Location Thirty-two grassland sites in North America and Australia. Methods We use multiscale observational data, collected identically in grain and extent at each site, to test the association of local and regional factors with the plot-level richness and abundance of native and exotic plants. Sites captured environmental and anthropogenic gradients including land-use intensity, human population density, light and soil resources, climate and elevation. Site selection occurred independently of exotic diversity, meaning that the numbers of exotic species varied randomly thereby reducing potential biases if only highly invaded sites were chosen. Results Regional factors associated directly or indirectly with human activity had the strongest associations with plot-level diversity. These regional drivers had divergent effects: urban-based economic activity was associated with high exotic : native diversity ratios; climate- and landscape-based indicators of lower human population density were associated with low exotic : native ratios. Negative correlations between plot-level native and exotic diversity, a potential signature of competitive interactions, were not prevalent; this result did not change along gradients of productivity or heterogeneity. Main conclusion We show that plot-level diversity of native and exotic plants are more consistently associatedwith regional-scale factors relating to urbanization and climate suitability than measures indicative of competition. These findings clarify the long-standing difficulty in resolving drivers of exotic diversity using single-factor mechanisms, suggesting that multiple interacting anthropogenic-based processes best explain the accumulation of exotic diversity in modern landscapes.

An evaluation of the culture performance of two Macrobrachium species in Vanuatu: the exotic M. rosenbergii and the indigenous M. lar

Fisheries and aquaculture are important for food security, income generation and are critical to long term sustainability of many countries. Freshwater prawns have been harvested in the streams and creeks in Vanuatu, however due to over-exploitation catches have declined in recent years. To satisfy high demand for this product, Vanuatu government intends to establish economically viable small-scale aquaculture industries. The current project showed that wild Macrobrachium lar in Vanuatu constitute a single population for management purposes and that M. rosenbergii grows much faster than M. lar in simple pond grow-out systems, hence is a better species for culture in Vanuatu.

From short pulses to short breaks : exotic plasma bullets via residual electron control

Plasma plumes with exotically segmented channel structure and plasma bullet propagation are produced in atmospheric plasma jets. This is achieved by tailoring interruptions of a continuous DC power supply over the time scales of lifetimes of residual electrons produced by the preceding discharge phase. These phenomena are explained by studying the plasma dynamics using nanosecond-precision imaging. One of the plumes is produced using 2-10μs interruptions in the 8kV DC voltage and features a still bright channel from which a propagating bullet detaches. A shorter interruption of 900ns produces a plume with the additional long conducting dark channel between the jet nozzle and the bright area. The bullet size, formation dynamics, and propagation speed and distance can be effectively controlled. This may lead to micrometer-and nanosecond-precision delivery of quantized plasma bits, warranted for next-generation health, materials, and device technologies.

Home range and habitat selection by a threatened bat in exotic plantation forest

Individuals' home ranges are constrained by resource distribution and density, population size, and energetic requirements. Consequently, home ranges and habitat selection may vary between individuals of different sex and reproductive conditions. Whilst home ranges of bats are well-studied in native habitats, they are often not well understood in modified landscapes, particularly exotic plantation forests. Although Chalinolobus tuberculatus (Vespertilionidae, Chiroptera) are present in plantation forests throughout New Zealand their home ranges have only been studied in native forest and forest-agricultural mosaic and no studies of habitat selection that included males had occurred in any habitat type. Therefore, we investigated C. tuberculatus home range and habitat selection within exotic plantation forest. Home range sizes did not differ between bats of different reproductive states. Bats selected home ranges with higher proportions of relatively old forest than was available. Males selected edges with open unplanted areas within their home ranges, which females avoided. We suggest males use these edges, highly profitable foraging areas with early evening peaks in invertebrate abundance, to maintain relatively low energetic demands. Females require longer periods of invertebrate activity to fulfil their needs so select older stands for foraging, where invertebrate activity is higher. These results highlight additional understanding gained when data are not pooled across sexes. Mitigation for harvest operations could include ensuring that areas suitable for foraging and roosting are located within a radius equal to the home range of this bat species.

The importance of exotic plantation forest for the New Zealand long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus)

Environmental certification schemes have stimulated increasing interest in biodiversity and its management within exotic plantation forests. These schemes expect management to be scientifically-based, even though little is known about how often, or which, native species use exotic plantation forests. Greater knowledge of the ecology of native species within exotic plantation forests is required to advise management and reduce risks to native species, particularly those that are rare, such as the New Zealand long-tailed bat (Chalinolobus tuberculatus). Long-tailed bats use exotic plantation forests throughout New Zealand but need protection from the impacts of forest management, and particularly clear-fell harvest, that is achievable only through a better understanding of their biology. The consequences of the current reduced re-planting, and the conversion of plantation forests into pasture resulting in smaller forested areas, should not be ignored because they may be associated with reductions in long-tailed bat populations. We review the current knowledge of long-tailed bats' use of exotic plantation forests, and report for the first time which exotic plantations long-tailed bats are known to use. We make recommendations for the design of monitoring programmes to detect long-tailed bats within plantation forests, and for research into the effects of forest management, especially logging, and comment on the likely impacts of reductions in forested areas on long-tailed bats.

Discrete families of Saffman–Taylor fingers with exotic shapes

The mathematical problem of determining the shape of a steadily propagating Saffman–Taylor finger in a rectangular Hele-Shaw cell is known to have a countably infinite number of solutions for each fixed surface tension value. For sufficiently large surface tension values, we find that fingers on higher solution branches are non-convex. The tips of the fingers have increasingly exotic shapes as the branch number increases.

Stabilization of exotic minority phases in a multicomponent self-assembled molecular network

Trimesic acid (TMA) and alcohols were recently shown to self-assemble into a stable, two-component linear pattern at the solution/highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) interface. Away from equilibrium, the TMA/alcohol self-assembled molecular network (SAMN) can coexist with pure-TMA networks. Here, we report on some novel characteristics of these non-equilibrium TMA structures, investigated by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). We observe that both the chicken-wire and flower-structure TMA phases can host 'guest' C60 molecules within their pores, whereas the TMA/alcohol SAMN does not offer any stable adsorption sites for the C60 molecules. The presence of the C60 molecules at the solution/solid interface was found to improve the STM image quality. We have taken advantage of the high-quality imaging conditions to observe unusual TMA bonding geometries at domain boundaries in the TMA/alcohol SAMN. Boundaries between aligned TMA/alcohol domains can give rise to doubled TMA dimer rows in two different configurations, as well as a tripled-TMA row. The boundaries created between non-aligned domains can create geometries that stabilize TMA bonding configurations not observed on surfaces without TMA/alcohol SAMNs, including small regions of the previously predicted 'super flower' TMA bonding geometry and a tertiary structure related to the known TMA phases. These structures are identified as part of a homologic class of TMA bonding motifs, and we explore some of the reasons for the stabilization of these phases in our multicomponent system.

Extent of dense native woodland and exotic weed infestation in the extensive grazing lands of the Upper Herbert and Upper Burdekin River Catchments of far north Queensland: results of a producer survey

The Mt Garnet Landcare Group commissioned a survey of landholders within the Upper Herbert and Upper Burdekin River Catchments to assess the density of native woodlands and to gauge the extent of exotic weed infestation. Twenty-four of 49 landholders responded, representing an area of nearly 500 000 ha or 47% of the total area. Dense native woodland covers 24% (>117 000 ha) of the area surveyed, while a further 30% (140 000 ha) supports moderately dense stands. The dense stands are largely confined to the highly fertile alluvial soils (26% dense woodland) and the lower fertility sandy-surfaced soils (33% or >96 000 ha). Moderate and dense infestations of exotic weeds, principally Lantana camara, occur on 54% (20 000 ha) of alluvial soils and on 13% of sandy-surfaced soils (39 000 ha), where praxelis (Praxelis clematidia) is the major weed. Basaltic soils have low levels of both dense woodland and exotic weed infestation. Some implications of the results are discussed.

The risk of pollen-mediated gene flow from exotic Corymbia plantations into native Corymbia populations in Australia

Sectors of the forest plantation industry in Australia are set to expand in the near future using species or hybrids of the spotted gums (Corymbia, Section Politaria). Plantations of these taxa have already been introduced across temperate and subtropical Australia, representing locally exotic introductions from native stands in Queensland and New South Wales. A literature review was undertaken to provide insights into the potential for pollen-mediated gene flow from these plantations into native populations. Three factors suggest that such gene flow is likely; (1) interspecific hybridisation within the genus has frequently been recorded, including between distantly related species from different sections, (2) apparent high levels of vertebrate pollinator activity may result in plantation pollen being moved over hundreds of kilometres, (3) much of the plantation estate is being established among closely related taxa and therefore few barriers to gene flow are expected. Across Australia, 20 of the 100 native Corymbia taxa were found to have regional level co-occurrence with plantations. These were located most notably within regions of north-east New South Wales and south-east Queensland, however, co-occurrence was also found in south-west Western Australia and eastern Victoria. The native species found to have co-occurrence were then assessed for the presence of reproductive barriers at each step in the process of gene flow that may reduce the number of species at risk even further. The available data suggest three risk categories exist for Corymbia. The highest risk was for gene flow from plantations of spotted gums to native populations of spotted gums. This was based on the expected limited existence of pre- and post-zygotic barriers, substantial long-distance pollen dispersal and an apparent broad period of flowering in Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata plantations. The following risk category focussed on gene flow from Corymbia torelliana × C. c. variegata hybrid plantations into native C. c. variegata, as the barriers associated with the production and establishment of F1 hybrids have been circumvented. For the lowest risk category, Corymbia plantations may present a risk to other non-spotted gum species, however, further investigation of the particular cross-combinations is required. A list of research directions is provided to better quantify these risks. Empirical data will need to be combined within a risk assessment framework that will not only estimate the likelihood of exotic gene flow, but also consider the conservation status/value of the native populations. In addition, the potential impacts of pollen flow from plantations will need to be weighed up against their various economic and environmental benefits.

Sediment and nutrient losses from exotic Pinus plantation management operations under simulated rainfall

Rainfall simulation experiments were carried out to measure runoff and soil water fluxes of suspended solids, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, dissolved organic carbon and total iron from sites in Pinus plantations on the coastal lowlands of south-eastern Queensland subjected to various operations (treatments). The operations investigated were cultivated and nil-cultivated site preparation, fertilised site preparation, clearfall harvesting and prescribed burning; these treatments were compared with an 8-y-old established plantation. Flow-weighted mean concentrations of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in surface runoff from the cultivated and nil-cultivated site-preparation, clearfall harvest, prescribed burning and 8-y-old established plantation treatments were very similar. However, both the soil water and the runoff from the fertilised site preparation treatment contained more nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) than the other treatments - with 3.10 mg N L-1 and 4.32 mg P L-1 (4 and 20 times more) in the runoff. Dissolved organic carbon concentrations in runoff from the nil-cultivated site-preparation and prescribed burn treatments were elevated. Iron concentrations were highest in runoff from the nil-cultivated site-preparation and 8-y-old established plantation treatments. Concentrations of suspended solids in runoff were higher from cultivated site preparation and prescribed burn treatments, and reflect the great disturbance of surface soil at these sites. The concentrations of all analytes were highest in initial runoff from plots, and generally decreased with time. Total nitrogen (mean 7.28, range 0.11-13.27 mg L-1) and total phosphorus (mean 11.60, range 0.06-83.99 mg L-1) concentrations in soil water were between 2 and 10 times greater than in surface runoff, which highlights the potential for nutrient fluxes in interflow (i.e. in the soil above the water table) through the general plantation area. Implications in regard to forest management are discussed, along with results of larger catchment-scale studies.

Long-term impacts of harvest residue management on nutrition, growth and productivity of an exotic pine plantation of sub-tropical Australia

Residue retention is an important issue in evaluating the sustainability of production forestry. However, its long-term impacts have not been studied extensively, especially in sub-tropical environments. This study investigated the long-term impact of harvest residue retention on tree nutrition, growth and productivity of a F1 hybrid (Pinus elliottii var. elliottii × Pinus caribaea var. hondurensis) exotic pine plantation in sub-tropical Australia, under three harvest residue management regimes: (1) residue removal, RR0; (2) single residue retention, RR1; and (3) double residue retention, RR2. The experiment, established in 1996, is a randomised complete block design with 4 replicates. Tree growth measurements in this study were carried out at ages 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 years, while foliar nutrient analyses were carried out at ages 2, 4, 6 and 10 years. Litter production and litter nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) measurements were carried out quarterly over a 15-month period between ages 9 and 10 years. Results showed that total tree growth was still greater in residue-retained treatments compared to the RR0 treatment. However, mean annual increments of diameter at breast height (MAID) and basal area (MAIB) declined significantly after age 4 years to about 68-78% at age 10 years. Declining foliar N and P concentrations accounted for 62% (p < 0.05) of the variation of growth rates after age 4 years, and foliar N and P concentrations were either marginal or below critical concentrations. In addition, litter production, and litter N and P contents were not significantly different among the treatments. This study suggests that the impact of residue retention on tree nutrition and growth rates might be limited over a longer period, and that the integration of alternative forest management practices is necessary to sustain the benefits of harvest residues until the end of the rotation.

Distribution and eradication of an exotic tephritid fruit fly in Australia: Relevance of invasion theory

Data from the eradication of the incursion of Bactrocera papayae Drew and Hancock (Dipt.: Tephritidae) in Australia (1995-1998) are used to assess the significance of various aspects of invasion theory, including the influence of towns on establishment, influence of propagule pressure on the pattern of establishment, and the existence of source-sink dynamics. Because there were no sentinel traps in place, considerable spread had occurred before the eradication campaign started. The distribution of fly density around the epicentre in the town of Cairns and a transect along the main traffic routes to the north and south fitted a Cauchy model with a tail having the same slope as a power model with an exponent of -2.4 extending to 160 km. The Cauchy model indicated that 50% of the flies on the transect would have occurred within 3.2 km of the epicentre, 90% within 13.2 km, and 99% within 60 km. The two major satellites at Mareeba (35 km from the epicentre in Cairns) and Mossman (65 km) were not used for the transect data and had respectively 15 and 30 times the density predicted by the model. The proportion of traps that caught flies (a measure of site occupancy) fell with distance from the epicentre. B. papayae was trapped consistently on only three of the 16 rainforest transects that were surveyed and these were relatively close to urban areas where eradication efforts were intense. Despite there being no eradication effort in the rainforest, the trends to extinction were similar to those in adjacent areas. The strategy of initially concentrating eradication efforts on the core and major satellites while maintaining a quarantine barrier at the airport and the boundaries of the infested area appears to be the key to the containment and rapid eradication of the incursion.