Efecto de los extractos de syzygium aromaticum sobre el crecimiento de entamoeba histolytica, giardia lamblia y trichonomas vaginalis.

Tesis (Doctor en Ciencias con acentuación en Química de Productos Naturales) UANL, 2014.

Diagnóstico e epidemiologia da Entamoeba histolytica em residentes do município de Juruti-Pará

Amebíase é a infecção no homem causada pelo protozoário Entamoeba histolytica, apresentam quadros sem manifestações clínicas até graves de elevada morbimortalidade e sendo responsável por milhões de casos de disenteria e abscessos hepáticos a cada ano. Os dados epidemiológicos da amebíase no Brasil estão sendo reavaliados desde que a Entamoeba histolytica (patogênica) foi considerada espécie distinta da Entamoeba dispar (não patogênica). Neste estudo, realizou- se o diagnóstico da amebíase por meio de métodos parasitológicos, pesquisa de antígenos e método molecular em amostras fecais de pacientes residentes no município de Juruti, Pará, Brasil. Foram analisadas 188 amostras, com positividade em 28 (14,89 %) no método imunológico, que foi considerado como padrão ouro. A infecção por E. histolytica foi maior no grupo etário acima de 14 anos (8,51%) que no grupo de 0-14 anos (6,38%), porém sem significância estatística (p > 0,05). Houve discordância nos resultados dos métodos ELISA e coproscópico em 41 amostras (21,81%), com maior número de positivos no teste imunoenzimático. O diagnóstico pelo método de PCR apresentou positividade de 5,88% (3/51), resultado inferior ao observado na microscopia (7,84% - 4/51) e teste de ELISA (11,76% - 6/51). Assim, nossos resultados sugerem que a amebíase intestinal é um problema de saúde pública no município de Juruti.

High occurence of Entamoeba histolytica in the municipalities of Ariquemes and Monte Negro, state of Rondônia, Western Amazonia, Brazil

Introduction: Entamoeba histolytica infections were investigated in residents of the Ariquemes and Monte Negro municipalities in Rondônia State, Brazil. Methods: Stool samples of 216 individuals were processed by the spontaneous sedimentation method and analyzed by microscopy for detection of the E. histolytica/E. dispar complex, followed by the immunoassay method using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based kit for the E. histolytica stool antigen. Results: E. histolytica/E. dispar cysts were present in 61% (50/82) and 44% (59/134) of the samples from Ariquemes and Monte Negro respectively, with a significant difference in the occurrence of infection between the two populations [p < 0.05; χ2 = 5.2; odds ratio = 2.0 (1.1 - 3.6)]. The E. histolytica antigen detection rate was 36.6% (30/82) for stool samples from Ariquemes, and 19.4% (26/134) for stool taken from the residents of Monte Negro. The rate of the occurrence of amoebiasis was significantly higher in the population from Ariquemes [p < 0.05; χ2= 7.8; odds ratio = 2.4 (1.2 - 4.7)]. Discussion: Due to the high occurrence of E. histolytica infected residents diagnosed in the region and the unavailability in local clinics of a test to distinguish between the two Entamoeba species, physicians should consider treating E. histolytica/E.dispar infections. Conclusion: The results indicate that E. histolytica infection is highly endemic in the studied areas.

Transcription initiation is controlled by three core promoter elements in the hgl5 gene of the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica is a single cell eukaryote that is the etiologic agent of amoebic colitis. Core promoter elements of E. histolytica protein encoding genes include a TATA-like sequence (GTATTTAAAG/C) at −30, a novel element designated GAAC (GAACT) that has a variable location between TATA and the site of transcription initiation, and a putative initiator (Inr) element (AAAAATTCA) overlying the site of transcription initiation. The presence of three separate conserved sequences in a eukaryotic core promoter is unprecedented and prompted examination of their roles in regulating transcription initiation. Alterations of all three regions in the hgl5 gene decreased reporter gene activity with the greatest effect seen by mutation of the GAAC element. Positional analysis of the TATA box demonstrated that transcription initiated consistently 30–31 bases downstream of the TATA region. Mutation of either the TATA or GAAC elements resulted in the appearance of new transcription start sites upstream of +1 in the promoter of the hgl5 gene. Mutation of the Inr element resulted in no change in the site of transcription initiation; however, in the presence of a mutated TATA and GAAC regions, the Inr element controlled the site of transcription initiation. We conclude that all three elements play a role in determining the site of transcription initiation. The variable position of the GAAC element relative to the site of transcription initiation, and the multiple transcription initiations that resulted from its mutation, indicate that the GAAC element has an important and apparently novel role in transcriptional control in E. histolytica.

Virulence and Functions of Myosin II Are Inhibited by Overexpression of Light Meromyosin in Entamoeba histolytica

Several changes in cell morphology take place during the capping of surface receptors in Entamoeba histolytica. The amoebae develop the uroid, an appendage formed by membrane invaginations, which accumulates ligand–receptor complexes resulting from the capping process. Membrane shedding is particularly active in the uroid region and leads to the elimination of accumulated ligands. This appendage has been postulated to participate in parasitic defense mechanisms against the host immune response, because it eliminates complement and specific antibodies bound to the amoeba surface. The involvement of myosin II in the capping process of surface receptors has been suggested by experiments showing that drugs that affect myosin II heavy-chain phosphorylation prevent this activity. To understand the role of this mechanoenzyme in surface receptor capping, a myosin II dominant negative strain was constructed. This mutant is the first genetically engineered cytoskeleton-deficient strain of E. histolytica. It was obtained by overexpressing the light meromyosin domain, which is essential for myosin II filament formation. E. histolytica overexpressing light meromyosin domain displayed a myosin II null phenotype characterized by abnormal movement, failure to form the uroid, and failure to undergo the capping process after treatment with concanavalin A. In addition, the amoebic cytotoxic capacities of the transfectants on human colon cells was dramatically reduced, indicating a role for cytoskeleton in parasite pathogenicity.

Regulation of Adherence and Virulence by the Entamoeba histolytica Lectin Cytoplasmic Domain, Which Contains a β2 Integrin Motif

Killing of human cells by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica requires adherence via an amebic cell surface lectin. Lectin activity in the parasite is regulated by inside-out signaling. The lectin cytoplasmic domain has sequence identity with a region of the β2 integrin cytoplasmic tail implicated in regulation of integrin-mediated adhesion. Intracellular expression of a fusion protein containing the cytoplasmic domain of the lectin has a dominant negative effect on extracellular lectin-mediated cell adherence. Mutation of the integrin-like sequence abrogates the dominant negative effect. Amebae expressing the dominant negative mutant are less virulent in an animal model of amebiasis. These results suggest that inside-out signaling via the lectin cytoplasmic domain may control the extracellular adhesive activity of the amebic lectin and provide in vivo demonstration of the lectin’s role in virulence.

Complementation of an Escherichia coli adhE mutant by the Entamoeba histolytica EhADH2 gene provides a method for the identification of new antiamebic drugs.

The pathogenic protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica, the cause of amebic dysentery and amebic liver abscess, is an obligate anaerobe, and derives energy from the fermentation of glucose to ethanol with pyruvate and acetyl coenzyme A as intermediates. We have isolated EhADH2, a key enzyme in this pathway, that is a NAD+- and Fe2+-dependent bifunctional enzyme with acetaldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase activities. EhADH2 is the only known eukaryotic member of a newly defined family of prokaryotic multifunctional enzymes, which includes the Escherichia coli AdhE enzyme, an enzyme required for anaerobic growth of E. coli. Because of the critical role of EhADH2 in the amebic fermentation pathway and the lack of known eukaryotic homologues of the EhADH2 enzyme, EhADH2 represents a potential target for antiamebic chemotherapy. However, screening of compounds for antiamebic activity is hampered by the cost of large scale growth of Ent. histolytica, and difficulties in quantitating drug efficacy in vitro. To approach this problem, we expressed the EhADH2 gene in a mutant strain of E. coli carrying a deletion of the adhE gene. Expression of EhADH2 restored the ability of the mutant E. coli strain to grow under anaerobic conditions. By screening compounds for the ability to inhibit the anaerobic growth of the E. coli/EhADH2 strain, we have developed a rapid assay for identifying compounds with anti-EhADH2 activity. Using bacteria to bypass the need for parasite culture in the initial screening process for anti-parasitic agents could greatly simplify and reduce the cost of identifying new therapeutic agents effective against parasitic diseases.

Identification of the galactose-adherence lectin epitopes of Entamoeba histolytica that stimulate tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by macrophages.

The 170-kDa subunit of the galactose-adherence lectin (Gal-lectin) of Entamoeba histolytica mediates adherence to human colonic mucins and intestinal epithelium as a prerequisite to amebic invasion. The Gal-lectin is an immunodominant molecule and a protective antigen in the gerbil model of amebiasis. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) produced by activated macrophages enhances nitric oxide-dependent cytotoxicity in host defense against E. histolytica. The purpose of this study was to identify the Gal-lectin epitopes which stimulate TNF-alpha production by macrophages. Murine bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) exposed to Gal-lectin (100-500 ng/ml) stimulated stable expression of TNF-alpha mRNA (8-fold increase) and TNF-alpha production similar to that of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated cells (100 ng/ml). Polyclonal anti-lectin serum specifically inhibited TNF-alpha mRNA induction in response to the Gal-lectin but not to lipopolysaccharide. Anti-lectin monoclonal antibodies 8C12, H85 and 1G7, which recognize nonoverlapping epitopes of the cysteine-rich region of the 170-kDa heavy subunit, inhibited both amebic adherence to mammalian cells and Gal-lectin-stimulated TNF-alpha mRNA expression by BMMs,but monoclonal antibody 7F4 did neither. As these inhibitory antibodies map to amino acids 596-1082 of the 170-kDa Gal-lectin, our results have identified the functional region that mediates amebic adherence and TNF-alpha mRNA induction in BMMMs; thus, this region of the Gal-lectin is a subunit vaccine candidate.

Transfection and continuous expression of heterologous genes in the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica.

To provide tools for functional molecular genetics of the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica, we investigated the use of the prokaryotic neomycin phosphotransferase (NEO) gene as a selectable marker for the transfection of the parasite. An Escherichia coli-derived plasmid vector was constructed (pA5'A3'NEO) containing the NEO coding region flanked by untranslated 5' and 3' sequences of an Ent. histolytica actin gene. Preceding experiments had revealed that amoebae are highly sensitive to the neomycin analogue G418 and do not survive in the presence of as little as 2 micrograms/ml. Transfection of circular pA5'A3'NEO via electroporation resulted in Ent. histolytica trophozoites resistant to G418 up to 100 micrograms/ml. DNA and RNA analyses of resistant cells indicated that (i) the transfected DNA was not integrated into the amoeba genome but was segregated episomally, (ii) in the amoebae, the plasmid replicated autonomously, (iii) the copy number of the plasmid and the expression of NEO-specific RNA were proportional to the amount of G418 used for selection, and (iv) under continuous selection, the plasmid was propagated over an observation period of 6 months. Moreover, the plasmid could be recloned into E. coli and was found to be unrearranged. To investigate the use of pA5'A3'NEO to coexpress other genes in Ent. histolytica, a second marker, the prokaryotic chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene under control of an Ent. histolytica lectin gene promoter was introduced into the plasmid. Transfection of the amoebae with this construct also conferred G418 resistance and, in addition, allowed continuous expression of CAT activity in quantities corresponding to the amount of G418 used for selection. When selection was discontinued, transfected plasmids were lost as indicated by an exponential decline of CAT activity in trophozoite extracts.

Direct evidence for secondary loss of mitochondria in Entamoeba histolytica.

Archezoan protists are though to represent lineages that diverged from other eukaryotes before acquisition of the mitochondrion and other organelles. The parasite Entamoeba histolytica was originally included in this group. Ribosomal RNA based phylogenies, however, place E. histolytica on a comparatively recent branch of the eukaryotic tree, implying that its ancestors had these structures. In this study, direct evidence for secondary loss of mitochondrial function was obtained by isolating two E. histolytica genes encoding proteins that in other eukaryotes are localized in the mitochondrion: the enzyme pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenase and the chaperonin cpn60. Phylogenetic analysis of the E. histolytica homolog of cpn60 confirmed that it is specifically related to the mitochondrial lineage. The data suggest that a mitochondrial relic may persist in this organism. Similar studies are needed in archezoan protists to ascertain which, if any, eukaryotic lineages primitively lack mitochondria.

Actividad biológica de bacteriocinas sobre el enquistamiento de Entamoeba histolytica HM1-IMSS y características nanomecánicas de la superficie celular al microscopio de fuerza atómica

La amibiasis es una infección parasitaria causada por Entamoeba histolytica. Representa una de las tres primeras causas de muerte por parásitos a nivel mundial. En México representa un problema de salud pública por su frecuencia, morbilidad, mortalidad y fácil dispersión. Muchos individuos infectados son portadores asintomáticos, lo que representa un reservorio para la diseminación a otros sujetos. Los pacientes infectados por E. histolytica eliminan trofozoítos no infecciosos y quistes infecciosos en sus heces. Los trofozoítos no pueden sobrevivir en el ambiente externo ni ser transportados a través del estómago si son ingeridos. La contaminación de alimentos y agua es la principal fuente para la transmisión de los quistes. La droga de elección para el tratamiento de la amibiasis y sus múltiples manifestaciones clínicas es el metronidazol, sin embargo presenta efectos secundarios indeseables en el humano y además existen reportes que indican que algunas cepas de E. histolytica presentan resistencia a esta droga, aunado a otros reportes que muestran actividad mutagénica y carcinogénica. Por esta razón se buscan alternativas terapéuticas para el tratamiento de esta enfermedad que no presenten efectos secundarios indeseables. Microorganismos producen sustancias antagónicas, por ejemplo, un amplio espectro de antibióticos y productos del metabolismo como ácidos orgánicos, moléculas quelantes de hierro (sideróforos) y bacteriocinas. Las bacteriocinas poseen espectros particulares de inhibición sobre el crecimiento de bacterias y protozoarios pero en enquistamiento tiene pocas investigaciones. En este proyecto se determinó la actividad biológica de bacteriocinas sobre el enquistamiento de E. histolytica HM1-IMSS bajo condiciones axénicas in vitro y se determinaron los cambios morfológicos tales como rugosidad, altura, ancho, volumen y longitud a través del microscopio de fuerza atómica (MFA) bajo el modo semi-contacto (tapping). Los datos se sometieron a un Análisis de Varianza (ANOVA) para determinar la significancia de los resultados.

Frequency and molecular characterisation of Entamoeba histolytica , Entamoeba dispar , Entamoeba moshkovskii , and Entamoeba hartmanni in the context of water scarcity in northeastern Brazil

This study aimed to estimate the frequency, associated factors, and molecular characterisation of Entamoeba histolytica , Entamoeba dispar, Entamoeba moshkovskii , and Entamoeba hartmanni infections. We performed a survey (n = 213 subjects) to obtain parasitological, sanitation, and sociodemographic data. Faecal samples were processed through flotation and centrifugation methods. E. histolytica, E. dispar, E. moshkovskii, and E. hartmanni were identified by nested-polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The overall prevalence of infection was 22/213 (10.3%). The infection rate among subjects who drink rainwater collected from roofs in tanks was higher than the rate in subjects who drink desalinated water pumped from wells; similarly, the infection rate among subjects who practice open defecation was significantly higher than that of subjects with latrines. Out of the 22 samples positive for morphologically indistinguishable Entamoeba species, the differentiation by PCR was successful for 21. The species distribution was as follows: 57.1% to E. dispar, 23.8% to E. histolytica, 14.3% to E. histolytica and E. dispar, and 4.8% E. dispar and E. hartmanni. These data suggest a high prevalence of asymptomatic infection by the group of morphologically indistinguishable Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii complex and E. hartmanni species. In this context of water scarcity, the sanitary and socioenvironmental characteristics of the region appear to favour transmission.

Evaluación de la actividad amebicida en trofozoitos de entamoeba histolytica (Schaudinn, 1903) de 15 plantas medicinales usadas en el Noreste de México

La amibiasis es una de las enfermedades parasitarias de mayor importancia en países subdesarrollados con climas tropicales y subtropicales, siendo México un país en el cual los datos epidemiológicos demuestran que el 20 % de la población se encuentra infectada por el protozoario Entamoeba histolytica. La principal quimioterapia para esta enfermedad se basa en el uso de imidazoles principalmente del Metronidazol el cual es la causa de numerosos efectos secundarios producidos tras su administración, por lo que es necesario obtener nuevos compuestos antiprotozoarios que ayuden a lograr mejores tratamientos. La medicina tradicional usada en el noreste de México menciona el empleo de numerosas plantas las cuales pueden ser empleadas para el tratamientos de desórdenes intestinales provocados por parásitos tanto protozoarios como helmintos. El objetivo de la presente investigación fue evaluar la actividad amebicida de 15 plantas medicinales empleadas en la medicina tradicional mexicana y aislar e identificar los compuestos con la principal actividad amebicida del extracto de la planta que presente el mayor porcentaje de inhibición sobre el crecimiento del parásito. Ruta chalepensis fue la planta con el mayor porcentaje de inhibición, se utilizaron 660 g de hojas de R. chalepensis los cuales fueron sometidos a extracción Soxhlet empleando metanol como solvente de extracción; después de eliminar el solvente, se evaluó la actividad amebicida del extracto metanólico y de sus particiones hexánica y de acetato de etilo. El extracto metanólico mostró una actividad amebicida de 90.50 % a 150 g/ml, en tanto la partición hexánica fue de 93.47 % y la partición de acetato de etilo de 84.82 % las cuales fueron evaluadas a la misma concentración de 150 g/ml, debido a que se obtuvieron porcentajes de inhibición sobresaliente en las dos particiones se realizó la separación cromatográfica de los componentes de ambas particiones. Del fraccionamiento cromatográfico se identificaron mediante diversas técnicas de RMN y espectrometría de masas los siguientes compuestos, una mezcla de psoraleno y bergapteno (IC50 de 57.09 g/ml), una mezcla de xantotoxina-isopimpinelina (IC50 de 26.22 g/ml), chalepensina (IC50 de 38.71 g/ml), graveolina, rutamarina (IC50 de 6.54 g/ml) y chalepina (IC50 de 28.67 g/ml). Como es posible observar el efecto amebicida de R. chalepensis está respaldado por la presencia de furanocumarinas.

Análisis de la expresión de miRNAs en trofozoítos de entamoeba histolytica.

Entamoeba histolytica representa una de las principales causas a nivel mundial de muertes por parasitosis. Aunque se ha identificado como el agente causal de la amibiasis desde 1875, los mecanismos moleculares por los cuales este parásito causa la enfermedad aún no estan completamente comprendidos. Los microRNAs (miRNAs) son grupos de RNAs pequeños no codificantes que juegan un papel importante en la regulación de la expresión de genes y la traducción de proteínas en una gran variedad de organismos. Su identificación ha sido un paso importante para facilitar y entender la biología, organización y evolución del genoma, así como su regulación posttranscripcional, sin embargo en E. histolytica no se tiene registro de la presencia de estas moléculas reguladoras. En nuestro laboratorio a partir de un cultivo de trofozoitos de E. histolytica en condiciones axénicas se aislaron los RNA totales y se purificaron en una fracción de 15 a 50 nucleótidos los cuales se utilizaron para construir una biblioteca de RNAs pequeños que posteriormente fueron secuenciados y en donde se detectaron 199 miRNAs exclusivos para este parásito. Durante el desarrollo de esta tesis, se analizó la expresión de miRNAs en trofozoítos de E. histolytica HM1-IMSS, usando la técnica de microarreglo µParaflo Microfluidic Biochip Technology y posteriormente se realizó la verificación de la expresión de los miRNAs mediante RT-PCR Tiempo Real. Los resultados del microarreglo demostraron la expresión 41 candidatos a miRNAs de los cuales se confirmó la presencia de 9 microRNAs de E. histolytica (Ehi-miRNAs) mediante RT-PCR Tiempo Real. La estructura de los Ehi-miRNAs permitió predecir 32 probables genes blanco ya descritos y 34 genes hipotéticos probables. Los resultados obtenidos postulan una colección de miRNAs reguladores en E. histolytica que generan una plataforma para analizar molecularmente la estructura genómica, regulación génica y validación de los Ehi-miRNAs en este parásito

Pathogenicity of Entamoeba dispar under xenic and monoxenic cultivation compared to a virulent E. histolytica

Two xenic isolates and cloned cultures of Entamoeba dispar were submitted to monoxenization using Crithidia fasciculata as the associated organism. Growth in monoxenic cultivation and ability of xenic and monoxenic trophozoites to destroy VERO cells and produce lesions in hamster livers were compared to those of a virulent E. histolytica. Parental and cloned E. dispar under monoxenic cultivation showed a remarkable lower growth than the monoxenic E. histolytica and were avirulent in both in vivo and in vitro tests. When xenically cultured, trophozoites of E. dispar showed a moderate lytic activity against VERO cells (1.5 to 41.8% of destruction) but caused severe hepatic lesions in hamsters as those caused by the virulent E. histolytica (29 to 100% in prevalence and 0.86 to 4.00 in lesion degree). Although E. dispar has not been associated with invasive disease in men, the ability of xenic trophozoites to produce prominent tissue damage in experimental conditions has indicated that some strains have a considerable pathogenic potential when in presence of bacteria.