The use and implications of ribosomal DNA sequencing for the discrimination of digenean species

In just over a decade, the use of molecular approaches for the recognition of parasites has become commonplace. For trematodes, the internal transcribed spacer region of ribosomal DNA (ITS rDNA) has become the default region of choice. Here, we review the findings of 63 studies that report ITS rDNA sequence data for about 155 digenean species from 19 families, and then review the levels of variation that have been reported and how the variation has been interpreted. Overall, complete ITS sequences (or ITS1 or ITS2 regions alone) usually distinguish trematode species clearly, including combinations for which morphology gives ambiguous results. Closely related species may have few base differences and in at least one convincing case the ITS2 sequences of two good species are identical. In some cases, the ITS1 region gives greater resolution than the ITS2 because of the presence of variable repeat units that are generally lacking in the ITS2. Intraspecific variation is usually low and frequently apparently absent. Information on geographical variation of digeneans is limited but at least some of the reported variation probably reflects the presence of multiple species. Despite the accepted dogma that concerted evolution makes the individual representative of the entire species, a significant number of studies have reported at least some intraspecific variation. The significance of such variation is difficult to assess a posteriori, but it seems likely that identification and sequencing errors account for some of it and failure to recognise separate species may also be significant. Some reported variation clearly requires further analysis. The use of a yardstick to determine when separate species should be recognised is flawed. Instead, we argue that consistent genetic differences that are associated with consistent morphological or biological traits should be considered the marker for separate species. We propose a generalised approach to the use of rDNA to distinguish trematode species.

Symmetrical Bisbenzimidazoles with Benzenediyl Spacer: The Role of the Shape of the Ligand on the Stabilization and Structural Alterations in Telomeric G-Quadruplex DNA and Telomerase Inhibition

The extremities of chromosomes end in a G-rich single-stranded overhang that has been implicated in the onset of the replicate senescence. The repeated sequence forming a G-overhang is able to adopt a four-stranded DNA structure called G-quadruplex, which is a poor substrate for the enzyme telomerase. Small molecule based ligands that selectively stabilize the telomeric G-quadruplex DNA, induce telomere shortening eventually leading to cell death. Herein, we have investigated the G-quadruplex DNA interaction with two isomeric bisbenzimidazole-based compounds that differ in terms of shape (V-shaped angular vs linear).While the linear isomer induced some stabilization of the intramolecular G-quadruplex structure generated in the presence of Na+ the other, having V-shaped central planar core, caused a dramatic structural alteration of the latter, above a threshold concentration. This transition was evident from the pronounced changes observed in the circular dichroism spectra and from the get mobility shift assa involving the G-quadruples DNA. Notably, this angular isomer could also induce the G-quadruplex formation in the absence of any added cation. The ligand-quadruples complexes were investigated by computational molecular modeling, providing further information on structure-activity relationships. Finally, TRAP (telomerase repeat amplification protocol) experiments demonstrated that the angular isomer is selective toward the inhibition of telomerase activity.

How Does the Spacer Length of Cationic Gemini Lipids Influence the Lipoplex Formation with Plasmid DNA? Physicochemical and Biochemical Characterizations and their Relevance in Gene Therapy

Lipoplexes formed by the pEGFP-C3 plasmid DNA (pDNA) and lipid mixtures containing cationic gemini surfactant of the 1,2-bis(hexadecyl dimethyl ammonium) Acmes family referred to as C16CnC16, where n = 2 3, 5, or 12, and the zwitterionic helper lipid, 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) have been studied from a wide variety of physical, chemical, and biological standpoints. The study has been carried out using several experimental methods, such as zeta potential, gel electrophoresis, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), cryo-TEM, gene transfection, cell viability/cytotoxicity, and confocal fluorescence microscopy. As reported recently in a communication (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 18014), the detailed physicochemical and biological studies confirm that, in the presence of the studied series lipid mixtures, plasmid DNA is compacted with a large number of its associated Na+ counterions. This in turn yields a much lower effective negative charge, q(pDNA)(-), a value that has been experimentally obtained for each mixed lipid mixture. Consequently, the cationic lipid (CL) complexes prepared with pDNA and CL/DOPE mixtures to be used in gene transfection require significantly less amount of CL than the one estimated assuming a value of q(DNA)(-) = -2. This drives to a considerably lower cytotoxicity of the gene vector. Depending on the CL molar composition, alpha, of the lipid mixture, and the effective charge ratio of the lipoplex, rho(eff), the reported SAXS data indicate the presence of two or three structures in the same lipoplex, one in the DOPE-rich region, other in the CL-rich region, and another one present at any CL composition. Cryo-TEM and SAXS studies with C16CnC16/DOPE-pDNA lipoplexes indicate that pDNA is localized between the mixed lipid bilayers of lamellar structures within a monolayer of similar to 2 nm. This is consistent with a highly compacted supercoiled pDNA conformation compared with that of linear DNA. Transfection studies were carried out with HEK293T, HeLa, CHO, U343, and H460 cells. The alpha and rho(eff) values for each lipid mixture were optimized on HEK293T cells for transfection, and using these values, the remaining cells were also transfected in absence (-FBS-FBS) and presence (-FBS+FBS) of serum. The transfection efficiency was higher with the CLs of shorter gemini spacers (n = 2 or 3). Each formulation expressed GFP on pDNA transfection and confocal fluorescence microscopy corroborated the results. C16C2C16/DOPE mixtures were the most efficient toward transfection among all the lipid mixtures and, in presence of serum, even better than the Lipofectamine2000, a commercial transfecting agent Each lipid combination was safe and did not show any significant levels of toxicity. Probably, the presence of two coexisting lamellar structures in lipoplexes synergizes the transfection efficiency of the lipid mixtures which are plentiful in the lipoplexes formed by CLs with short spacer (n = 2, 3) than those with the long spacer (n = 5, 12).

A delocalizable cationic headgroup together with an oligo-oxyethylene spacer in gemini cationic lipids improves their biological activity as vectors of plasmid DNA

Lipoplex nano-aggregates constituted of plasmid DNA (pDNA) pEGFP-C3 and mixed cationic liposomes, consisting of several percentages of a gemini cationic lipid (GCL) of the 1,2-bis(hexadecyl imidazolium) oxyethylene series, referred to as (C(16)Im)(2)(C2O)(n), with oxyethylene spacers (n = 1, 2 or 3) between the imidazolium cationic groups and the DOPE zwitterionic helper lipid, have been characterized by various biophysical and biological approaches carried out at several GCL compositions (alpha), and either the mass or the effective charge ratio of the lipoplex. The electrochemical study by zeta-potential confirms that the three GCLs yield a 10% lower effective charge than the nominal one, while compacted pDNA yields only a 25% effective negative charge. The SAXS study reveals, irrespective of the spacer length (n) and effective charge ratio (rho(eff)), the presence of two lamellar structures, i.e., one (L-alpha,L-main) in the whole GCL composition and another (L-alpha,L-DOPE,L-rich) with higher periodicity values that coexists with the previous one at low GCL composition (alpha = 0.2). The cryo-TEM analysis shows two types of multilamellar structures consisting of cationic lipidic bilayers with pDNA sandwiched between them: a cluster-type (C-type) at low alpha = 0.2 and a fingerprint-type (FP-type) at alpha >= 0.5, both with similar interlamellar spacing (d) in agreement with the L-alpha,L-main structure determined by SAXS. Transfection efficacies (TEs) of each lipid mixture were determined in four different cell lines (HEK293T, HeLa, Caco-2 and A549) at several alpha and rho(eff) values in the absence and presence of serum (FBS). The optimized formulations (alpha = 0.2 and rho(eff) = 2.0) substantially transfect cells much better than a commercial transfection reagent, Lipofectamine 2000 and previously studied efficient lipoplexes containing other cationic head groups or spacers both in the absence and presence of serum. The activity of optimized formulations may be attributed to the combination of several factors, such as: (a) the fusogenic character of DOPE which results in higher fluidity of the lipoplexes at alpha = 0.2, (b) the coexistence of two lamellar structures at alpha = 0.2 that synergizes the TE of these lipid vectors, and mainly (c) the higher biocompatibility of the GCLs reported in this work due to the presence of two imidazolium cationic groups together with an oligo-oxyethylene spacer. The length of the spacer in the GCL seems to have less impact, although (C(16)Im)(2)(C2O)(n)/DOPEpDNA lipoplexes with n = 1 and 3 show higher gene transfection than n = 2. All the optimum formulations reported herein are all highly efficient with negligible levels of toxicity, and thus, may be considered as very promising gene vectors for in vivo applications.

New dimeric carbazole-benzimidazole mixed ligands for the stabilization of human telomeric G-quadruplex DNA and as telomerase inhibitors. A remarkable influence of the spacer

for selectively targeting cancer cells. Herein, we report the design and evolution of a new kind of carbazole-based benzimidazole dimers for their efficient telomerase inhibition activity. Spectroscopic titrations reveal the ligands high affinity toward the G4 DNA with significantly higher selectivity over duplex-DNA. The electrophoretic mobility shift assay shows that the ligands efficiently promote the formation of 04 DNA even at a lower concentration of the stabilizing K+ ions. The TRAP-LIG assay demonstrates the ligand's potential telomerase inhibition activity and also establishes that the activity proceeds via G4 DNA stabilization. An efficient nuclear internalization of the ligands in several common cancer cells (HeLa, HT1080, and A549) also enabled differentiation between normal HFF cells in co-cultures of cancer and normal ones. The ligands induce significant apoptotic response and antiproliferative activity toward cancer cells selectively when compared to the normal cells.

松科nrDNA 的进化研究Evolution of nuclear ribosomal DNA in Pinaceae

核核糖体DNA（nrDNA）已被作为一个重要的标记，用于推断很多分类等级上的系统发育关系。相对于在被子植物中的快速致同进化，nrDNA在裸子植物中的致同进化速率低，且ITS和5S-NTS区有着较大的长度变异，这种现象在松科植物中尤为明显。在本研究中，我们克隆并测定了银杉属的5S rDNA以及冷杉属、银杉属、雪松属、油杉属、长苞铁杉属、金钱松属与铁杉属的ITS序列。基于获得的新数据，再结合前人报导的其它属的数据，我们探讨了如下四个问题： （1）松科 nrDNA ITS1 亚重复单位的组成、分布及进化;（2）ITS1区的长度变异与亚重复单位数目的关系以及它们的系统学意义;（3）松科ITS1的二级结构特征;（4）银杉5S rDNA编码区及非转录间隔区的结构特征。主要研究结果如下： 1. ITS区的序列分析ITS区的克隆及序列分析发现：（1） 松科ITS1的长度变异范围为 944-3271 bp, 这是目前已报导的真核生物中属间ITS变异最大的类群之一;（2） 所有松科植物的ITS区域都包含亚重复单位，亚重复单位的数目从2到9，并且这些亚重复单位可分为两种类型，即不含保守核心序列（5’-GGCCACCCTAGTC ） 的长亚重复单位（LSR）和含上述保守核心序列的短亚重复单位（SSR）;（3） ITS1区的巨大长度变异主要归因于亚重复单位的数量变异; （4） ITS1区的GC含量与 它的序列长度和亚重复单位的数目有一定关系，并能够提供一些系统发育信息，特别是支持云杉属、松属和银杉属三者具有很近的亲缘关系。 2. ITS1亚重复单位的系统发育分析为了研究亚重复单位的进化关系，我们用最大似然法和最大简约法构建了松科ITS1亚重复单位的系统发育树。结果表明：（1）在ML和MP树中可发现有共同的五个分支; （2） 银杉比松科其它属拥有更多的SSR，且该属的所有9个SSR在系统树中构成一个单系支，表明它们是在银杉属内发生重复的;（3）一些SSR在属间和种间具有同源性，可为nrDNA ITS 的进化历史以及松科的系统发育 研究提供重要信息;（4）亚重复单位的多次重复以及伴随的重组可能是导致LSR 和SSR在松科不同属中分布式样不同的原因。 3. 松科ITS1的二级结构 用 Mfold 3.2 软件对松科所有11个属的ITS1区进行了二级结构预测，共获得了563个最低自由能折叠。结合以前关于松科二级结构的报导，我们分析的结果表明：（1） 松科ITS1的二级结构主要由几个延展的发夹结构组成;（2） 构象的复杂性与亚重复的数目呈正相关;（3）配对的亚重复单位通常在保守核心区（5’-GGCCACCCTAGTC ） 处有部分重叠，并且构成一个长茎，而其它的亚重复单位通常会自身折叠，且保守核心区的部分出现在发夹结构的环中。 4. 银杉5S rDNA 序列分析 我们对来自银杉不同群体的3个个体的5S rDNA进行了克隆，共获得 45 条序列，分析结果表明：（1） 绝大多数银杉5S rDNA编码区长度为120 bp, 以GGG 开头，以CTC结尾，编码区出现的碱基替代主要为转换;（2） 银杉与其它裸子植物相比，5S rDNA基因编码区具很高的相似性（90-99%）; （3）间隔区含有一个poly-C和一个poly-T结构、两个TC丰富区以及五个GC丰富区。根据长度和序列特征，银杉的5S rDNA间隔区可分为三种类型：Type A 长751-764 bp，Type B 长770-807 bp （含一个32 bp的插入），Type C 长581-594 bp; （5）长间隔区（Type A，Type B ）中含有两个148-175 bp的串联亚重复单位，该亚重复单位与短间隔区（Type C ）中的一段143 bp的序列具有较高的相似性（56.0-66.8%）。 5. 银杉5S rRNA的二级结构 Mfold 3.2 预测结果表明：（1）银杉5S rRNA二级结构包括5个双螺旋区（干区）（Ⅰ-Ⅴ）、2个发夹结构环区（C和D）、3个中间环区（B1、B2 和 E）和1个铰链区（A）, 铰链区为三个双螺旋的结合处;（2） 二级结构中的环区通常比双螺旋区更加保守;（3）在5个双螺旋中，I 和 IV 区有较高的碱基替代率。