Activity of the δ-Opioid Receptor Is Partially Reduced, Whereas Activity of the κ-Receptor Is Maintained in Mice Lacking the μ-Receptor

Previous pharmacological studies have indicated the possible existence of functional interactions between μ-, δ- and κ-opioid receptors in the CNS. We have investigated this issue using a genetic approach. Here we describe in vitro and in vivo functional activity of δ- and κ-opioid receptors in mice lacking the μ-opioid receptor (MOR). Measurements of agonist-induced [35S]GTPγS binding and adenylyl cyclase inhibition showed that functional coupling of δ- and κ-receptors to G-proteins is preserved in the brain of mutant mice. In the mouse vas deferens bioassay, deltorphin II and cyclic[d-penicillamine2,d-penicillamine5] enkephalin exhibited similar potency to inhibit smooth muscle contraction in both wild-type and MOR −/− mice. δ-Analgesia induced by deltorphin II was slightly diminished in mutant mice, when the tail flick test was used. Deltorphin II strongly reduced the respiratory frequency in wild-type mice but not in MOR −/− mice. Analgesic and respiratory responses produced by the selective κ-agonist U-50,488H were unchanged in MOR-deficient mice. In conclusion, the preservation of δ- and κ-receptor signaling properties in mice lacking μ-receptors provides no evidence for opioid receptor cross-talk at the cellular level. Intact antinociceptive and respiratory responses to the κ-agonist further suggest that the κ-receptor mainly acts independently from the μ-receptor in vivo. Reduced δ-analgesia and the absence of δ-respiratory depression in MOR-deficient mice together indicate that functional interactions may take place between μ-receptors and central δ-receptors in specific neuronal pathways.

Motivational effects of cannabinoids are mediated by μ-opioid and k-opioid receptor

Repeated THC administration produces motivational and somaticadaptive changes leading to dependence in rodents. Toinvestigate the molecular basis for cannabinoid dependenceand its possible relationship with the endogenous opioid system,we explored Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) activity in mice lacking μ-, δ- or κ-opioid receptor genes. Acute THCinduced hypothermia, antinociception, and ypolocomotion remained unaffected in these mice, whereas THC tolerance and withdrawal were minimally modified in mutant animals. In contrast, profound phenotypic changes are observed in several place conditioning protocols that reveal both THC rewarding and aversive properties. Absence of μ receptors abolishes THC place preference. Deletion of κ receptors ablates THC place aversion and furthermore unmasks THC place preference. Thus, an opposing activity of μ- and κ-opioid receptors in modulating reward pathways forms the basis for the dual euphoric–dysphoric activity of THC.

A limited role for beta-selection during gamma delta T cell development.

T cells belong to two distinct lineages expressing either alpha beta or gamma delta TCR. During alpha beta T cell development, it is clearly established that productive rearrangement at the TCR beta locus in immature precursor cells leads to the expression of a pre-TCR complex. Signaling through the pre-TCR results in the selective proliferation and maturation of TCR beta+ cells, a process that is known as beta-selection. However, the potential role of beta-selection during gamma delta T cell development is controversial. Whereas PCR-RFLP and sequencing techniques have provided evidence for a bias toward in-frame VDJ beta rearrangements in gamma delta cells (consistent with beta-selection), gamma delta cells apparently develop normally in mice that are unable to assemble a pre-TCR complex due to a deficiency in TCR beta or pT alpha genes. In this report, we have directly addressed the physiologic significance of beta-selection during gamma delta cell development in normal mice by quantitating intracellular TCR beta protein in gamma delta cells and correlating its presence with cell cycle status. Our results indicate that beta-selection plays a significant (although limited) role in gamma delta cell development by selectively amplifying a minor subset of gamma delta precursor cells with productively rearranged TCR beta genes.

T cell receptor delta gene rearrangement and T early alpha (TEA) expression in immature alpha beta lineage thymocytes: implications for alpha beta/gamma delta lineage commitment.

Mature T cells comprise two mutually exclusive lineages expressing heterodimeric alpha beta or gamma delta antigen receptors. During development, beta, gamma, and delta genes rearrange before alpha, and mature gamma delta cells arise in the thymus prior to alpha beta cells. The mechanism underlying commitment of immature T cells to the alpha beta or gamma delta lineage is controversial. Since the delta locus is located within the alpha locus, rearrangement of alpha genes leads to deletion of delta. We have examined the rearrangement status of the delta locus immediately prior to alpha rearrangement. We find that many thymic precursors of alpha beta cells undergo VDJ delta rearrangements. Furthermore, the same cells frequently coexpress sterile T early alpha (TEA) transcripts originating 3' of C delta and 5' of the most upstream J alpha, thus implying that individual alpha beta lineage cells undergo sequential VDJ delta and VJ alpha rearrangements. Finally, VDJ delta rearrangements in immature alpha beta cells appear to be random, supporting models in which alpha beta lineage commitment is determined independently of the rearrangement status at the TCR delta locus.

Étude du rôle de la tyrosine kinase Src dans la régulation de la signalisation des récepteurs opioïdes delta (∆OR)

Les opioïdes sont les analgésiques les plus efficaces mais leur utilisation est limitée par la tolérance, un processus lié en partie à la désensibilisation des récepteurs. Le rôle de la présente étude était de mieux caractériser le processus de désensibilisation des récepteurs et plus particulièrement, d’étudier le rôle de la tyrosine kinase Src sur la régulation de la signalisation des récepteurs delta opioïdes. Nos résultats démontrent que l’inhibition pharmacologique avec PP2 (à faible concentration : 20- 40µM) ou encore l’inhibition moléculaire de la kinase avec de faibles concentrations d’ADN d’un mutant dominant inactif de Src (0,2µg/ml) potentialise l’amplitude et la durée de l’activation de la cascade ERK lorsqu’un agoniste, DPDPE (1µM; 5 min), se lie aux récepteurs. Nous avons également démontré que de fortes concentrations d’inhibiteurs de Src (80 et 100µM de PP2 ou 1µg/ml d’ADN du mutant dominant négatif) bloquent la cascade des MAPK suivant la stimulation de DOR par l’agoniste DPDPE. Ces observations indiquent que Src a un effet biphasique sur l’activité de ERK : l’inhibition complète de Src inhibe l’activité de la cascade MAPK alors qu’une inhibition modérée potentialise cette même cascade. Nous pensons aussi que de fortes concentrations des bloqueurs de Src interfèrent avec l’activation de ERK alors que de faibles concentrations interfèrent avec la désensibilisation des récepteurs. Cette possibilité a été testée à l’aide d’essais d’accumulation d’AMPc qui visaient à évaluer l’effet des bloqueurs de Src (PP2, 20 µM; 1h) sur la désensibilisation induite par un agoniste. L'activation de DOR par DPDPE inhibe la production d’AMPc, préalablement stimulée par du forskolin, de façon dose-dépendante. Le maximum d'inhibition observé est de 61%, mais lors d’un prétraitement au DPDPE (1 µM, 30 min) l’inhibition maximale est réduite à 72% de l’inhibition initiale observée. Cependant, un prétraitement des cellules au PP2 (20µM pendant 1 heure) avant d’effectuer la désensibilisation protège contre cette désensibilisation. L’effet protecteur des bloqueurs de Src n’entraîne pas de changement au niveau de l’internalisation des DOR mais l’altération de leur internalisation via un mutant tronqué du DOR ou via un milieu sucré hypertonique (0.4M de saccharose) réduit cette protection. Ces données suggèrent alors que l’internalisation optimale du récepteur est nécessaire pour que l’effet protecteur prenne place. Nous concluons donc que Src contribue à la désensibilisation de DOR après que l’internalisation du DOR soit survenue.

Étude du trafic du récepteur delta-opiacé suite à sa stimulation par différents agonistes

Les opiacés figurent parmi les analgésiques les plus puissants pour le traitement des douleurs sévères. Les agonistes du DOR (récepteur delta opiacé) induisent moins d'effets secondaires que ceux du mu, ce qui les rend une cible d'intérêt pour le traitement des douleurs chroniques. Cependant, ils induisent la tolérance à l'analgésie. Des hypothèses récentes proposent que le potentiel des drogues à induire la tolérance soit la conséquence de la stabilisation de différentes conformations du récepteur induites par la liaison avec différents ligands, chacune ayant différentes propriétés de trafic. Dans ce contexte, nous avons déterminé si différents ligands du DOR différaient dans leur capacité à induire la signalisation et le trafic du récepteur. Nos résultats indiquent que DPDPE et SNC-80 sont les drogues les plus efficaces à inhiber la production d’AMPc, suivis par UFP-512, morphine et TIPP. DPDPE et SNC-80 induisent à eux seuls l’internalisation du DOR dans les cellules HEK-293 de façon dépendante de la β-arrestine mais pas de la GRK2 ni PKC. Ces deux drogues induisent également l’internalisation du DOR dans les neurones corticaux et c’est seulement le DPDPE qui permet au DOR de regagner la membrane des cellules HEK-293 et des neurones après récupération. Cette capacité de recyclage était suggérée comme un mécanisme protégeant contre la survenue de la tolérance. Ces observations indiquent que le DOR peut subir différentes régulations en fonction du ligand lui étant associé. Cette propriété de sélectivité fonctionnelle des ligands pourrait être utile pour le développement de nouveaux opiacés ayant une activité analgésique plus durable.

L'inhibition de la production d'AMPc est modulée différemment à court et long terme par l'internalisation du récepteur opioïde delta

Les opioïdes sont les analgésiques les plus puissants mais leur utilisation prolongée peut entraîner le développement d’une tolérance analgésique. La tolérance serait en partie associée à l’inhibition prolongée de l’adénosine monophosphate cyclique (AMPc) entraînant des changements compensatoires dans la voie de l’adénylate cyclase. Pour cette étude, nous avons eu recours à un biosenseur basée sur la technologie de Bioluminescence Resonnance Energy Transfer (BRET) et qui fournit des mesures de l’AMPc en fonction du temps réel. Durant les 15 premières minutes de stimulation, la réponse de l’AMPc est bi-phasique. Cette progression de la réponse à l’AMPc n’est pas la même pour tous les ligands. Par exemple, la deltorphine II qui induit l’internalisation du récepteur opioïde delta (DOR) affiche une baisse de l’inhibition de l’AMPc. À l’inverse la morphine qui n’induit pas l’internalisation du DOR affiche une réponse stable à l’inhibition de l’AMPc. Ainsi le profil d’internalisation permet de prédire la progression de l’inhibition de l’AMPc à court terme (15 minutes). Nous avons aussi mesuré la réponse à l’AMPc durant 30, 60 et 120 min, étant donné qu’un traitement chronique aux opioïdes induit une tolérance analgésique. Selon les résultats obtenus, le profil d’internalisation du DOR induits par les ligands ne permet pas d’expliquer l’inhibition persistante de l’AMPc.

Opioid activation in the lateral parabrachial nucleus induces hypertonic sodium intake

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Endogenous opioid peptide-mediated neurotransmission in central and pericentral nuclei of the inferior colliculus recruits mu(1)-opioid receptor to modulate post-ictal antinociception

Background: The aim of the present work was to investigate the involvement of the mu(1)-endogenous opioid peptide receptor-mediated system in post-ictal antinociception. Methods: Antinociceptive responses were determined by the tail-flick test after pre-treatment with the selective mu(1)-opioid receptor antagonist naloxonazine, peripherally or centrally administered at different doses. Results: Peripheral subchronic (24 h) pre-treatment with naloxonazine antagonised the antinociception elicited by tonic-clonic seizures. Acute (10 min) pre-treatment, however, did not have the same effect. In addition, microinjections of naloxonazine into the central, dorsal cortical and external cortical nuclei of the inferior colliculus antagonised tonic-clonic seizure-induced antinociception. Neither acute (10-min) peripheral pre-treatment with naloxonazine nor subchronic intramesencephalic blockade of mu(1)-opioid receptors resulted in consistent statistically significant differences in the severity of tonic-clonic seizures shown by Racine's index (1972), although the intracollicular specific antagonism of mu(1)-opioid receptor decreased the duration of seizures. Conclusion: mu(1)-Opioid receptors and the inferior colliculus have been implicated in several endogenous opioid peptide-mediated responses such as antinociception and convulsion. The present findings suggest the involvement of mu(1)-opiate receptors of central and pericentral nuclei of the inferior colliculus in the modulation of tonic-clonic seizures and in the organisation of post-ictal antinociception. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Different addictive drug exposure induces selective alterations of the Endogenous Opioid System : modulation of transcription and epigenetic mechanisms

Drug addiction manifests clinically as compulsive drug seeking, and cravings that can persist and recur even after extended periods of abstinence. The fundamental principle that unites addictive drugs is that each one enhances synaptic DA by means that dissociate it from normal behavioral control, so that they act to reinforce their own acquisition. Our attention has focused on the study of phenomena associated with the consumption of alcohol and heroin. Alcohol has long been considered an unspecific pharmacological agent, recent molecular pharmacology studies have shown that acts on different primary targets. Through gene expression studies conducted recently it has been shown that the classical opioid receptors are differently involved in the consumption of ethanol and, furthermore, the system nociceptin / NOP, included in the family of endogenous opioid system, and both appear able to play a key role in the initiation of alcohol use in rodents. What emerges is that manipulation of the opioid system, nociceptin, may be useful in the treatment of addictions and there are several evidences that support the use of this strategy. The linkage between gene expression alterations and epigenetic modulation in PDYN and PNOC promoters following alcohol treatment confirm the possible chromatin remodeling mechanism already proposed for alcoholism. In the second part of present study, we also investigated alterations in signaling molecules directly associated with MAPK pathway in a unique collection of postmortem brains from heroin abusers. The interest was focused on understanding the effects that prolonged exposure of heroin can cause in an individual, over the entire MAPK cascade and consequently on the transcription factor ELK1, which is regulated by this pathway. We have shown that the activation of ERK1/2 resulting in Elk-1 phosphorylation in striatal neurons supporting the hypothesis that prolonged exposure to substance abuse causes a dysregulation of MAPK pathway.

Abolition of morphine-immunosuppression in mice lacking the μ-opioid receptor gene

Opiates are potent analgesic and addictive compounds. They also act on immune responses, and morphine, the prototypic opiate, has been repeatedly described as an immunosuppressive drug. Pharmacological studies have suggested that the inhibitory action of opiates on immunity is mediated by multiple opioid receptor sites but molecular evidence has remained elusive. Recently, three genes encoding μ- (MOR), δ-, and κ-opioid receptors have been cloned. To investigate whether the μ-opioid receptor is functionally implicated in morphine immunosuppression in vivo, we have examined immune responses of mice with a genetic disruption of the MOR gene. In the absence of drug, there was no difference between wild-type and mutant mice with regard to a large number of immunological endpoints, suggesting that the lack of MOR-encoded protein has little consequence on immune status. Chronic morphine administration induced lymphoid organ atrophy, diminished the ratio of CD4+CD8+ cells in the thymus and strongly reduced natural killer activity in wild-type mice. None of these effects was observed in MOR-deficient mice after morphine treatment. This demonstrates that the MOR gene product represents a major molecular target for morphine action on the immune system. Because our previous studies of MOR-deficient mice have shown that this receptor protein is also responsible for morphine analgesia, reward, and physical dependence, the present results imply that MOR-targeted therapeutic drugs that are developed for the treatment of pain or opiate addiction may concomitantly influence immune responses.

Expression of corticotropin-releasing factor in inflamed tissue is required for intrinsic peripheral opioid analgesia.

Immune cell-derived opioid peptides can activate opioid receptors on peripheral sensory nerves to inhibit inflammatory pain. The intrinsic mechanisms triggering this neuroimmune interaction are unknown. This study investigates the involvement of endogenous corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and interleukin-1beta (IL-1). A specific stress paradigm, cold water swim (CWS), produces potent opioid receptor-specific antinociception in inflamed paws of rats. This effect is dose-dependently attenuated by intraplantar but not by intravenous alpha-helical CRF. IL-1 receptor antagonist is ineffective. Similarly, local injection of antiserum against CRF, but not to IL-1, dose-dependently reverses this effect. Intravenous anti-CRF is only inhibitory at 10(4)-fold higher concentrations and intravenous CRF does not produce analgesia. Pretreatment of inflamed paws with an 18-mer 3'-3'-end inverted CRF-antisense oligodeoxynucleotide abolishes CWS-induced antinociception. The same treatment significantly reduces the amount of CRF extracted from inflamed paws and the number of CRF-immunostained cells without affecting gross inflammatory signs. A mismatch oligodeoxynucleotide alters neither the CWS effect nor CRF immunoreactivity. These findings identify locally expressed CRF as the predominant agent to trigger opioid release within inflamed tissue. Endogenous IL-1, circulating CRF or antiinflammatory effects, are not involved. Thus, an intact immune system plays an essential role in pain control, which is important for the understanding of pain in immunosuppressed patients with cancer or AIDS.

Dissection of peripheral and central endogenous opioid modulation of systemic interleukin-1 beta responses using c-fos expression in the rat brain

In opiate addicts or patients receiving morphine treatment, it has been reported that the immune system is often compromised. The mechanisms responsible for the adverse effects of opioids on responses to infection are not clear but it is possible that central and/or peripheral opioid receptors may be important. We have utilised an experimental immune challenge model in rats, the systemic administration of the human pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) to study the effects of selectively blocking peripheral opioid receptors only (using naloxone methiodide) or after blocking both central and peripheral opioid receptors (using naloxone). Pre-treatment with naloxone methiodide decreased (15%) IL-1 beta-induced Fos-immunoreactivity (Fos-IR) in medial parvocellular paraventricular nucleus (mPVN) corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons but increased responses in the ventrolateral medulla (VLM) C1 (65%) and nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) A2 (110%) catecholamine cell groups and area postrema (136%). However no effect of blocking peripheral opioid receptors was detected in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) or dorsal bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST). We next determined the effect of blocking both central and peripheral opioid receptors with naloxone and, when compared to the naloxone methiodide pre-treated group, a further 60% decrease in Fos-IR mPVN CRH neurons induced by IL-1 beta was detected, which was attributed to block of central opioid receptors. Similar comparisons also detected decreases in Fos-IR neurons induced by IL-1 beta in the VLM A1, VLM C1 and NTS A2 catecholamine cell groups, area postrema, and parabrachial nucleus. In contrast, pre-treatment with naloxone increased Fos-IR neurons in CeA (98%) and dorsal BNST (72%). These results provide novel evidence that endogenous opioids can influence central neural responses to systemic IL-1 beta and also suggest that the differential patterns of activation may arise because of actions at central and/or peripheral opioid receptors that might be important in regulating behavioural, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and sympathetic nervous system responses during an immune challenge. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Opioids and NMDA receptors: Neuro-excitation and abnormal pain behaviours

In the clinical setting, chronic administration of high doses of systemic morphine may result in neuro-excitatory behaviours such as myoclonus and allodynia in some patients. Additionally, high doses of m-opioid agonists such as morphine administered chronically by the intrathecal route in both rats and humans, as well as DAMGO in rats, have been reported to produce neuro-excitatory behaviours. However, more recently, it has begun to be appreciated that even at normal analgesic doses, opioids such as morphine are capable not only of activating pain inhibitory systems (analgesia/antinociception), but they also activate pain facilitatory systems such that post-opioid allodynia/hyperalgesia may be evident after cessation of opioid treatment. Whilst it is well documented that opioid receptors mediate the inhibitory effects of opioid analgesics, the excitatory and pro-nociceptive effects of opioids appear to involve indirect activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, such that the extent of pain relief produced may be the net effect of these two opposing actions. Apart from the NMDA-nitric oxide (NO) pro-nociceptive signaling cascade, considerable evidence also implicates dynorphin A as well as the endogenous anti-opioid peptides cholecystokinin (CCK), neuropeptide FF (NPFF) and orphanin FQ/nociceptin, in mediating opioid-induced neuro-excitation and abnormal pain behaviours. Apart from the neuro-excitatory effects that may be produced by the parent opioid, systemic administration of some opioid analgesics such as morphine and hydromorphone in rats and humans results in their rapid conversion to 3-glucuronide metabolites that also contribute significantly to the neuro-excitatory and abnormal pain behaviours produced

Effect Of Pain Chronification And Chronic Pain On An Endogenous Pain Modulation Circuit In Rats.

We tested the hypothesis that chronic pain development (pain chronification) and ongoing chronic pain (chronic pain) reduce the activity and induce plastic changes in an endogenous analgesia circuit, the ascending nociceptive control. An important mechanism mediating this form of endogenous analgesia, referred to as capsaicin-induced analgesia, is its dependence on nucleus accumbens μ-opioid receptor mechanisms. Therefore, we also investigated whether pain chronification and chronic pain alter the requirement for nucleus accumbens μ-opioid receptor mechanisms in capsaicin-induced analgesia. We used an animal model of pain chronification in which daily subcutaneous prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) injections into the rat's hind paw for 14 days, referred to as the induction period of persistent hyperalgesia, induce a long-lasting state of nociceptor sensitization referred to as the maintenance period of persistent hyperalgesia, that lasts for at least 30 days following the cessation of the PGE2 treatment. The nociceptor hypersensitivity was measured by the shortening of the time interval for the animal to respond to a mechanical stimulation of the hind paw. We found a significant reduction in the duration of capsaicin-induced analgesia during the induction and maintenance period of persistent mechanical hyperalgesia. Intra-accumbens injection of the μ-opioid receptor selective antagonist Cys(2),Tyr(3),Orn(5),Pen(7)amide (CTOP) 10 min before the subcutaneous injection of capsaicin into the rat's fore paw blocked capsaicin-induced analgesia. Taken together, these findings indicate that pain chronification and chronic pain reduce the duration of capsaicin-induced analgesia, without affecting its dependence on nucleus accumbens μ-opioid receptor mechanisms. The attenuation of endogenous analgesia during pain chronification and chronic pain suggests that endogenous pain circuits play an important role in the development and maintenance of chronic pain.