Chemical Modifications in Styrene-Butadiene Rubber after Microwave Devulcanization

Microwave devulcanization has been studied as a method for elastomer recycling, which is based on the conversion of the reticulated and infusible structure of thermosetting rubbers in free polymeric chains able to be remolded by thermomechanical processing in recycling operations for the manufacture of other products. Elastomeric wastes are often irregularly discarded in nature, producing serious environmental damage, and their mechanical recycling is still considered a challenge. Thus, the development of alternatives for elastomer recycling is directly related to the actions of sustainable development and economic benefits to companies that pay to discard their wastes. The aim of this work is to evaluate the chemical modifications occurring in styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) after microwave devulcanization. Compounds of SBR were vulcanized in the presence of vulcanization agents and variable amounts of carbon black, and then the rubbers were milled and submitted to microwave treatment. Only the SBR with high carbon black content shows some portion of devulcanized material. However, the rubber with lower content of carbon black which was devulcanized by microwave radiation shows an increase in cross-link density. The microwave treatment also causes cross-link breaks mainly in polysulfidic bonds as well as decomposition of chemical groups containing sulfur attached to the chemical structure of SBR, while. the chemical bonds of higher energy such as monosulfidic bonds remain preserved. The improvement of the microwave method for rubber devulcanization represents a way for viable recycling of thermosetting rubbers.

Kinetic parameters and monomeric conversion of different dental composites using standard and soft-start photoactivation modes

This paper evaluates the photopolymerization kinetics and degree of conversion of different commercial dental composites when photoactivated by a LED curing unit using two different modes (standard and soft-start mode). The investigation was performed on with RelyX ARC (dual-cured), Filtek Z-350 (Nanocomposite), Filtek Z-250 (Hybrid), and Filtek Z-350flow (Flowable) resin composites. The analysis used was attenuated total reflection with a Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR). The RelyX ARC resin demonstrated the highest degree of conversion with both LED photoactivation modes. For this resin a 28% decrease in maximum rate was observed and the time to reach its highest rate was almost 2.3 times higher than when the soft-start photoactivation light curing was used. Z-350flow resin recorder a higher maximum rate using the soft-start mode rather than the standard mode. In contrast, the Z-250 showed a higher value using the standard mode. Although Z-250 and Z-350 showed a higher total degree of conversion effectiveness using the soft-start mode, RelyX and Z-350flow achieved a higher value using the standard mode.

Studio di macromolecole associate alla calcificazione in organismi marini

Lo studio riportato in questa tesi ha come scopo l’osservazione e la comprensione dei processi molecolari associati alla deposizione di CaCO3 nei polimorfi di calcite e aragonite nel mollusco gasteropode Haliotis rufescens. In particolare l’attenzione si è focalizzata sullo strato glicoproteico (green layer) che si trova inserito all’interno dell’ipostraco o strato madreperlaceo. Studi precedenti suggeriscono l’ipotesi che il green layer sia una struttura polifunzionale che svolge un ruolo attivo nell’induzione di crescita dei cristalli di carbonato di calcio nella conchiglia. All’analisi microscopica il green layer si presenta come un foglietto trilaminato. Sugli strati esterni è depositata aragonite nella forma prismatica da una parte e sferulitica dall’altra. All’interno è racchiuso un core proteico, formato da glicoproteine e ricco di chitina. Questa struttura tripartita conferisce al guscio calcareo nuove proprietà meccaniche, come la resistenza alle fratture molto maggiore rispetto al minerale naturale. Il green layer è stato trattato in ambiente alcalino, l’unico in grado di solubilizzarlo. È stato ottenuto del materiale proteico che è stato caratterizzato utilizzando SDS-PAGE, colorato con Blu Comassie e all’argento per visualizzarne la componente peptidica. Il green layer è fluorescente, sono state quindi eseguite analisi spettroscopiche sull’estratto peptidico per determinarne le proprietà chimo fisiche (dipendenza dal pH dell’intensità di fluorescenza). Sono stati eseguiti esperimenti di crescita dei cristalli di CaCO3 in ambiente saturo di CaCl2 in assenza e presenza del peptide e in assenza e presenza di Mg++. I cristalli sono stati osservati al microscopio elettronico a scansione (SEM) e al microscopio confocale. Da un punto di vista spettroscopico si osserva che, eccitando l’estratto alcalino del green layer a 280 nm e 295 nm, lunghezze d’onda caratteristiche degli aminoacidi aromatici, si ottiene uno spettro di emissione che presenta una forte banda centrata a 440 nm e una spalla a circa 350 nm, quest’ultima da ascrivere all’emissione tipica di aminoacidi aromatici. L’emissione di fluorescenza dell’estratto dal green layer dipende dal pH per tutte le bande di emissione; tale effetto è particolarmente visibile per lo spettro di emissione a 440 nm, la cui lunghezza d’onda di emissione e l’intensità dipendono dalla ionizzazione di aminoacidi acidi (pKa = 4) e dell’istidina (pKa = 6.5 L’emissione a 440 nm proviene invece da un’eccitazione il cui massimo di eccitazione è centrato a 350 nm, tipica di una struttura policiclica aromatica. Poiché nessun colorante estrinseco viene isolato dalla matrice del green layer a seguito dei vari trattamenti, tale emissione potrebbe derivare da una modificazione posttraduzionale di aminoacidi le cui proprietà spettrali suggeriscono la formazione di un prodotto di dimerizzazione della tirosina: la ditirosina. Questa struttura potrebbe essere la causa del cross-link che rende resistente il green layer alla degradazione da parte di agenti chimici ed enzimatici. La formazione di ditirosina come fenomeno post-traduzionale è stato recentemente acquisito come un fenomeno di origine perossidativa attraverso la formazione di un radicale Tyr ed è stato osservato anche in altri organismi caratterizzati da esoscheletro di tipo chitinoso, come gli insetti del genere Manduca sexta. Gli esperimenti di cristallizzazione in presenza di estratto di green layer ne hanno provato l’influenza sulla nucleazione dei cristalli. In presenza di CaCl2 avviene la precipitazione di CaCO3 nella fase calcitica, ma la conformazione romboedrica tipica della calcite viene modificata dalla presenza del peptide. Inoltre aumenta la densità dei cristalli che si aggregano a formare strutture sferiche di cristalli incastrati tra loro. Aumentando la concentrazione di peptide, le sfere a loro volta si uniscono tra loro a formare strutture geometriche sovrapposte. In presenza di Mg++, la deposizione di CaCO3 avviene in forma aragonitica. Anche in questo caso la morfologia e la densità dei cristalli dipendono dalla concentrazione dello ione e dalla presenza del peptide. È interessante osservare che, in tutti i casi nei quali si sono ottenute strutture cristalline in presenza dell’estratto alcalino del green layer, i cristalli sono fluorescenti, a significare che il peptide è incluso nella struttura cristallina e ne induce la modificazione strutturale come discusso in precedenza. Si osserva inoltre che le proprietà spettroscopiche del peptide in cristallo ed in soluzione sono molto diverse. In cristallo non si ha assorbimento alla più corta delle lunghezze d’onda disponibili in microscopia confocale (405 nm) bensì a 488 nm, con emissione estesa addirittura sino al rosso. Questa è un’indicazione, anche se preliminare, del fatto che la sua struttura in soluzione e in cristallo è diversa da quella in soluzione. In soluzione, per un peptide il cui peso molecolare è stimato tra 3500D (cut-off della membrana da dialisi) e 6500 D, la struttura è, presumibilmente, totalmente random-coil. In cristallo, attraverso l’interazione con gli ioni Ca++, Mg++ e CO3 -- la sua conformazione può cambiare portando, per esempio, ad una sovrapposizione delle strutture aromatiche, in modo da formare sistemi coniugati non covalenti (ring stacking) in grado di assorbire ed emettere luce ad energia più bassa (red shift).

Über die Funktion und Struktur der Tyrosinase aus Streptomyces antibioticus

Für die Aufklärung der chemisch anspruchsvollen Monophenolase-Reaktion von Tyrosinasen wurde ein System entwickelt, um das Zielprotein aus dem Bakterium Streptomyces antibioticus in großen Mengen und mit hoher Reinheit zu isolieren. Zudem konnte ein hypothetischer Reaktionsmechanismus für die Monophenolase- und die Diphenolase-Aktivität der Tyrosinase formuliert werden. Die beiden Reaktionen der S. antibioticus-Tyrosinase wurden kinetisch analysiert und auf diesem Weg die Aktivität des Enzyms mit jener der sehr gut charakterisierten Tyrosinase aus dem Pilz Agaricus bisporus verglichen. Hierbei wurden signifikante Unterschiede festgestellt, die auf die verschiedenartigen Proteinstrukturen zurückgeführt wurden. Auch konnte gezeigt werden, dass einige sekundäre Pflanzenstoffe, die vor allem in Wein zu finden sind und in ihrer chemischen Struktur den Tyrosinasesubstraten ähnlich sind, die Aktivität dieses Enzyms maßgeblich beeinflussen. Das O2-Transportprotein Hämocyanin aus der Vogelspinne Eurypelma californicum, das wie die Tyrosinase zu der Familie der Typ-3-Kupferproteine gehört, ist nach chemischer Aktivierung zur Phenoloxidase zur enzymatischen Quervernetzung von Proteinen fähig. Die Tatsache, dass diese Quervernetzung auch das Hämocyanin selbst betrifft, sowie der erfolgreiche Nachweis von Hämocyanin in der Kutikula des genannten Organismus, legen die Vermutung nahe, dass die physiologische Funktion von Hämocyanin im Rahmen der Sklerotisierung des Exoskeletts in einer aktiven und passiven Beteiligung an Gerbungsprozessen im Integument besteht.

Study of molecular mechanisms in cardio- and neuroprotection and possibility of modulation by nutraceutical phytocomponents

Ischemic preconditioning is a complex cardioprotective phenomenon that involves adaptive changes in cells and molecules. This adaptation occurs in a biphasic pattern: an early phase which develops after 1-2 h, and a late phase that develops after 12-24 h. While it is widely accepted that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are strongly involved in triggering ischemic preconditiong, it is not clear if they play a major role in the early or late phase of preconditioning and which are the mechanisms involved. Methylglyoxal, a metabolic compound formed mainly from the glycolytic intermediate glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate., is a precursor of advanced glycation end product (AGEs) .It is more reactive than glucose and shows a stronger ability to cross-link with protein amino groups to form AGEs. Methylglyoxal induced cytotoxicity may be at least partially responsible for cardiovascular and Alzheimer diseases. Methylglyoxal omeostasis is controlled by the glyoxalase system that consists of two enzyme, glyoxalase 1 (GLO1) and glyoxalase 2. In a recent study it was demonstrated that the transcriptional levels of GLO1 are controlled by NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). The isothiocyanate sulforaphane, derived from the hydrolysis of glucoraphanin abundantly present in broccoli, represents one of the most potent inducers of phase II enzymes through the Keap1–Nrf2 pathway. The aim of this thesis was evaluated molecular mechanisms in cardio- and neuroprotection and the possibility of modulation by nutraceutical phytocomponents This thesis show to one side that the protection induced by H2O2 is mediated by detoxifying and antioxidant phase II enzymes induction, regulated, not only by transcriptional factor Nrf2, but also by Nrf1; on the other side our data represent an innovative result because for the first time it was demonstrated the possibility of inducing GLO1 by SF supplementation.

Strukturbildung in Polyurethandispersionen und -filmen

Mechanische Eigenschaften nach Verfilmen sind häufig die wichtigsten Anforderungen für Polyurethandispersionen, so werden beispielsweise in den Hauptanwendungen im Beschichtungs- und Klebstoffsektor oftmals hohe Festigkeiten benötigt. Diese Anforderungen werden in der Dissertation durch eine gezielte Strukurbildung in den Polymeren adressiert. Mit einer hohen Kontrolle über den Polymeraufbau, durch die Ausbildung von kristallinen Bereichen, sowie mit phasenseparierten Morphologien werden drei Konzepte für die Modifikation der mechanischen Eigenschaften vorgestellt: Eine chemische bzw. kovalente Vernetzung wird mit funktionalisierten Polyurethanen erreicht, die physikalische Vernetzung kann reversibel die mechanische Festigkeit von Filmen erhöhen und Hybride mit kontrollierter Morphologie zeigen eine Kombination von Vorteilen ihrer Einzelbestandteile. Ferner zeichnen sich die synthetisierten Polyurethane gegenüber anderen Polymerklassen durch ihre relativ einfache Synthese und die Möglichkeit zur Herstellung multifunktionaler Materialien aus.

Photodegradation and photostabilization of weathered wood flour filled polyethylene composites

Wood plastic composites (WPCs) have gained popularity as building materials because of their usefulness in replacing solid wood in a variety of applications. These composites are promoted as being low-maintenance, high-durability products. However, it has been shown that WPCs exposed to weathering may experience a color change and/or loss in mechanical properties. An important requirement for building materials used in outdoor applications is the retention of their aesthetic qualities and mechanical properties during service life. Therefore, it is critical to understand the photodegradation mechanisms of WPCs exposed to UV radiation and to develop approaches to stabilize these composites (both unstabilized and stabilized) as well as the effect of weathering on the color fade and the retention of mechanical properties were characterized. Since different methods of manufacturing WPCs lead to different surface characteristics, which can influence weathering, the effect of manufacturing method on the photodegradation of WPCs was investigated first. Wood flour (WF) filled high-density polyethylene (HDPE) composite samples were either injection molded, extruded, or extruded and then planed. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to monitor the surface chemistry of the manufactured composites. The spectra showed that the surface of planed samples had more wood component than extruded and injection molded samples, respectively. After weathering, the samples were analyzed for color fade, and loss of flexural properties. The final lightness of the composites was not dependent upon the manufacturing method. However the mechanical property loss was dependent upon manufacturing method. The samples with more wood component at the surface (planed samples) experienced a larger percentage of total loss in flexural properties after weathering due to a greater effect of moisture on the samples. The change in surface chemistry of HDPE and WF/HDPE composites after weathering was studied using spectroscopic techniques. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to characterize the occurrence of surface oxidation whereas FTIR spectroscopy was used to monitor the development of degradation products, such as carbonyl groups and vinyl groups, and to determine changes in HDPE crystallinity. Surface oxidation occurred immediately after exposure for both the neat HDPE and WF/HDPE composites. After weathering, the surface of the WF/HDPE composites was oxidized to a greater extent than the neat HDPE after weathering. This suggests that photodegradation is exacerbated by the addition of the carbonyl functional groups of the wood fibers within the HDPE atrix during composite manufacturing. While neat HDPE may undergo cross-linking in the initial stages of accelerated weathering, the WF may physically hinder the ability of the HDPE to cross-link resulting in the potential for HDPE chain scission to dominate in the initial weathering stages of the WF/HDPE composites. To determine which photostabilizers are most effective for WF/HDPE composites, factorial experimental designes were used to determine the effects of adding two hindered amine light stabilizers, an ultraviolet absorber, and a pigment on the color made and mechanical properties of both unweathered and UV weathered samples. Both the pigment and ultraviolet absorber were more effective photostabilizers for WF/HDPE composites than hinder amine light stabilizers. The ineffectiveness of hindered amine light stabilizers in protecting WPCs against UV radiation was attribuated to the acid/base reactions occurring between the WF and hindered amine light stabilizer. The efficiency of an ultraviolet absorber and/or pigment was also examined by incorporating different concentration of an ultraviolet absorber and/or pigment into WF/HDPE composites. Color change and flexural properties were determined after accelerated UV weathering. The lightness of the composite after weathering was influenced by the concentration of both the ultraviolet absorber by masking the bleaching wood component as well as blocking UV light. Flexural MOE loss was influenced by an increase in ultraviolet absorber concentration, but increasing pigment concentration from 1 to 2% had little influence on MOE loss. However, increasing both ultraviolet absorber and pigment concentration resulted in improved strength properties over the unstabilized composites after 3000 h of weather. Finally, the change in surface chemistry due to weathering of WF/HDPE composites that were either unstabilized or stabilized with an ultraviolet absorber and/or pigment was analyzed using FTIR spectroscopy. The samples were tested for loss in modulus of elasticity, carbonyl and vinyl group formation at the surface, and change in HDPE crystallinity. It was concluded that structural changes in the samples; carbonyl group formation, terminal vinyl group formation, and crystallinity changes cannot reliably be used to predict changes in modulus of elasticity using a simple linear relationship. The effect of cross-linking, chain scission, and crystallinity changes due to ultraviolet exposure as well as the interfacial degradation due to moisture exposure are inter-related factors when weathering HDPE and WF/HDPE composites.

Characterization of the human tissue transglutaminase gene promoter

Transglutaminases are a family of calcium-dependent enzymes, that catalyze the covalent cross-linking of proteins by forming $\varepsilon(\gamma$-glutamyl)lysine isopeptide bonds. In order to investigate the molecular mechanisms regulating the expression of the tissue transglutaminase gene and to determine its biological functions, the goal of this research has been to clone and characterize the human tissue transglutaminase promoter. Thirteen clones of the tissue transglutaminase gene were obtained from the screening of a human placental genomic DNA library. A 1.74 Kb fragment derived from DNA located immediately upstream of the translation start site was subcloned and sequenced. Sequence analysis of this DNA fragment revealed that it contains a TATA box (TATAA), a CAAT box (GGACAAT), and a series of potential transcription factor binding sites and hormone response elements. Four regions of significant homology, a GC-rich region, a TG-rich region, an AG-rich region, and HR1, were identified by aligning 1.8 Kb of DNA flanking the human, mouse, and guinea pig tissue transglutaminase genes.^ To measure promoter activity, we subcloned the 1.74 Kb fragment of the tissue transglutaminase gene into a luciferase reporter vector to generate transglutaminase promoter/luciferase reporter constructs. Transfection experiments showed that this DNA segment includes a functional promoter with high constitutive activity. Deletion analysis revealed that the SP1 sites or corresponding sequences contribute to this activity. We investigated the role of DNA methylation in regulating the activity of the promoter and found that in vitro methylation of tissue transglutaminase promoter/luciferase reporter constructs suppressed their basal activity. Methylation of the promoter is inversely correlated with the expression of the tissue transglutaminase gene in vivo. These results suggest that DNA methylation may be one of the mechanisms regulating the expression of the gene. The tumor suppressor gene product p53 was also shown to inhibit the activity of the promoter, suggesting that induction of the tissue transglutaminase gene is not involved in the p53-dependent programmed cell death pathway. Although retinoids regulate the expression of the tissue transglutaminase gene in vivo, retinoid-inducible activity can not be identified in 3.7 Kb of DNA 5$\sp\prime$ to the tissue transglutaminase gene.^ The structure of the 5$\sp\prime$ end of the tissue transglutaminase gene was mapped. Alignment analysis of the human tissue transglutaminase gene with other human transglutaminases showed that tissue transglutaminase is the simplest member of transglutaminase superfamily. Transglutaminase genes show a conserved core of exons and introns but diverse N-terminuses and promoters. These observations suggest that key regulatory sequences and promoter elements have been appended upstream of the core transglutaminase gene to generate the diversity of regulated expression and regulated activity characteristic of the transglutaminase gene family. ^

A conserved motif at the 3$\sp\prime$ end of genomic RNA of mouse hepatitis virus required for host protein binding and viral RNA replication

The initial step in coronavirus-mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) replication is the synthesis of negative strand RNA from a positive strand genomic RNA template. Our approach to studying MHV RNA replication is to identify the cis-acting signals for RNA synthesis and the protein(s) which recognizes these signals at the 3$\sp\prime$ end of genomic RNA of MHV. To determine whether host cellular and/or virus-specific proteins interact with the 3$\sp\prime$ end of the coronavirus genome, an RNase T$\sb1$ protection/gel mobility shift electrophoresis assay was used to examine cytoplasmic extracts from either mock- or MHV-JHM-infected 17Cl-1 murine cells for the ability to form complexes with defined regions of the genomic RNA. A conserved 11 nucleotide sequence UGAAUGAAGUU at nucleotide positions 36 to 26 from the 3$\sp\prime$ end of genomic RNA was identified to be responsible for the specific binding of host proteins, by using a series of RNA probes with deletions and mutations in this region. The RNA probe containing the 11 nucleotide sequence bound approximately four host cellular proteins with a highly labeled 120 kDa and three minor species with sizes of 103, 81 and 55 kDa, assayed by UV-induced covalent cross-linking. Mutation of the 11 nucleotide motif strongly inhibited cellular protein binding, and decreased the amount of the 103 and 81 kDa proteins in the complex to undetectable levels and strongly reduced the binding of the 120 kDa protein. Less extensive mutations within this 11 nucleotide motif resulted in variable decreases in RNA-protein complex formation depending on each probe tested. The RNA-protein complexes observed with cytoplasmic extracts from MHV-JHM-infected cells in both RNase protection/gel mobility shift and UV cross-linking assays were indistinguishable to those observed with extracts from uninfected cells.^ To investigate the possible role of this 3$\sp\prime$ protein binding element in viral RNA replication in vivo, defective interfering RNA molecules with complete or partial mutations of the 11 nucleotide conserved sequence were transcribed in vitro, transfected to host 17Cl-1 cells in the presence of helper virus MHV-JHM and analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis, competitive RT-PCR and direct sequencing of the RT-PCR products. Both negative strand synthesis and positive strand replication of DI RNA were affected by mutation that disrupts RNA-protein complex formation, even though the 11 mutated nucleotides were converted to wild type sequence, presumably by recombination with helper virus. Kinetic analysis indicated that recombination between DI RNA and helper virus occurred 5.5 to 7.5 hours post infection when replication of positive strand DI RNA was barely observed. Replication of positive strand DI RNAs carrying partial mutations within the 11 nucleotide motif was dependent upon recombination events after transfection. Replication was strongly inhibited when reversion to wild type sequence did not occur, and after recombination, reached similar levels as wild type DI RNA. A DI RNA with mutation upstream of the protein binding motif replicated as efficiently as wild type without undergoing recombination. Thus the conserved 11 nucleotide host protein binding motif appears to play an important role in viral RNA replication. ^

Role of the B1 short arm in laminin self-assembly

Laminin self-assembles into a basement membrane polymer through specific low-affinity interactions. Recently, it was shown that the terminal short-arm domain (domains VI and V) of the B1 chain (fragment E4) possesses one of the laminin self-interaction sites [Schittny, J.C. & Yurchenco, P.D. (1990) J. Cell Biol. 110, 825-832], but that the binding partner(s) of this domain is unknown. Using affinity retardation chromatography we now investigate the domain(s) fragment E4 binds to. The elution of E4 was clearly retarded on immobilized laminin and fragment E1' (three-chain short-arm complex excluding the distal part of the B1 chain), but not on immobilized E4 in calcium containing buffer and at 37 degrees C. Under the same conditions, E1' strongly interacts with immobilized E4. In addition, E1' is able to non-covalently cross-link soluble E4 to immobilized E4. No further interaction of laminin and E4 with additional fragments (P1', A, B2 and B1 chain short-arm complex without B1-domains VI-IV and without globules; E8, distal long arm and G1-3; E3, long-arm G subdomains 4 and 5) could be demonstrated. These data are interpreted as evidence that (a) the primary laminin-laminin bonds are formed between the short arms of laminin, that (b) the terminal B1 short-arm domain (E4) can interact with the short arm(s) of the A and/or B2 chain(s) (domain E1'), but does not self-interact, and that (c) due to at least three self-binding sites, laminin polymerization behaves co-operatively.

The synthesis and application of a diazirine-modified uridine analogue for investigating RNA-protein interactions

The roles played by many ncRNAs remain largely unknown. Similarly, relatively little is known about the RNA binding proteins involved in processing ncRNA. Identification of new RNA/RNA binding protein (RBP) interactions may pave the way to gain a better understanding of the complex events occurring within cells during gene expression and ncRNA biogenesis. The development of chemical tools for the isolation of RBPs is of paramount importance. In this context, we report on the synthesis of the uridine phosphoramidite U Dz that bears a diazirine moiety on the nucleobase. RNA probes containing U Dz units were irradiated in the presence of single-stranded DNA binding protein (SSB), which is also known to bind ssRNAs, and shown to efficiently (15% yield) and selectively cross-link to the protein. The corresponding diazirine-modified uridine triphosphate U DzTP was synthesized and its capacity to act as a substrate for the T7 RNA polymerase was tested in transcription assays. U DzTP was accepted with a maximum yield of 38% for a 26mer RNA containing a single incorporation and 28% yield for triple consecutive incorporations. Thus, this uridine analogue represents a convenient biochemical tool for the identification of RNA binding proteins and unraveling the role and function played by ncRNAs.

SYSTEMIC TOXICITY IN RODENTS FOLLOWING ACUTE AND SUBCHRONIC INHALATION OF FORMALDEHYDE (FLOW CYTOMETRY, CELL CYCLE KINETICS, ALKALINE ELUTION)

Systemic toxicity was evaluated in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats and A-strain mice exposed to HCHO inhalation at 0, 0.5, 3, or 15 ppm for six hours/day, five days/week for up to 24 weeks. Toxicity was measured by flow cytometry to detect changes in cell cycle RNA and DNA content and by alkaline elution to detect DNA protein cross-link (DPC) formation.^ A G(,2)M block was detected in SD rat marrow following one week of exposure to 0.5, 3, or 15 ppm HCHO, but this block did not persist. No effect was noticed in mouse marrow. Only a minimal increase in RNA content was detected in rat or mouse marrow while exfoliated lung cells showed a significant increase in RNA activity after one week of exposure.^ Acute exposure in SD rats for four hours/day for one or three days at 150 ppm showed an increase in RNA activity in exfoliated lung cells but not in the marrow after one day. On the third day, dead cells were detected in exfoliated lung cells.^ In alkaline elution studies, no DPC were detected in marrow of SD rats after 24 weeks exposure up to 15 ppm. During acute exposures, a dose response relationship was detected in SD rat exfoliated lung cells which yielded cross-linking factors of 0.954, 1.237, and 1.417 following a four hour exposure to 15, 50, or 150 ppm, respectively. No DPC were detected in the marrow at 150 ppm. In vitro exposures to HCHO of CHO and SHE cells and rat marrow cells revealed the production of DPC and DNA-DNA cross-links.^ Cytoxan treatment of SD rats was used to provide positive controls for flow cytometry and alkaline elution. A drastic reduction in RNA content and cycling cells occurred one day following treatment. After four days, RNA content was greatly increased; and on day eleven the marrow had regenerated. DPCs were detected in both the marrow and the exfoliated lung cells.^ The lack of significant responses in SD rats and A-strain mice below 15 ppm HCHO is explainable by host defense mechanisms. Apparently, the mucociliary apparatus and enzymatic detoxification are sufficient to reduce systemic toxicity to low level concentrations of formaldehyde. ^

Cloning and characterization of the full length cDNA and promoter of mouse tissue transglutaminase

Transglutaminases are a family of enzymes that catalyze the covalent cross-linking of proteins through the formation of $\varepsilon$-($\gamma$-glutaminyl)-lysyl isopeptide bonds. Tissue transglutaminase (Tgase) is an intracellular enzyme which is expressed in terminally differentiated and senescent cells and also in cells undergoing apoptotic cell death. To characterize this enzyme and examine its relationship with other members of the transglutaminase family, cDNAs, the first two exons of the gene and 2 kb of the 5$\sp\prime$ flanking region, including the promoter, were isolated. The full length Tgase transcript consists of 66 bp of 5$\sp\prime$-UTR (untranslated) sequence, an open reading frame which encodes 686 amino acids and 1400 bp of 3$\sp\prime$-UTR sequence. Alignment of the deduced Tgase protein sequence with that of other transglutaminases revealed regions of strong homology, particularly in the active site region.^ The Tgase cDNA was used to isolate and characterize a genomic clone encompassing the 5$\sp\prime$ end of the mouse Tgase gene. The transcription start site was defined using genomic and cDNA clones coupled with S1 protection analysis and anchored PCR. This clone includes 2.3 kb upstream of the transcription start site and two exons that contain the first 256 nucleotides of the mouse Tgase cDNA sequence. The exon intron boundaries have been mapped and compared with the exon intron boundaries of three members of the transglutaminase family: human factor XIIIa, the human keratinocyte transglutaminase and human erythrocyte band 4.1. Tissue Tgase exon II is similar to comparable exons of these genes. However, exon I bears no resemblance with any of the other transglutaminase amino terminus exons.^ Previous work in our laboratory has shown that the transcription of the Tgase gene is directly controlled by retinoic acid and retinoic acid receptors. To identify the region of the Tgase gene responsible for regulating its expression, fragments of the Tgase promoter and 5$\sp\prime$-flanking region were cloned into the chloramphenicol actetyl transferase (CAT) reporter constructs. Transient transfection experiments with these constructs demonstrated that the upstream region of Tgase is a functional promoter which contains a retinoid response element within a 1573 nucleotide region spanning nucleotides $-$252 to $-$1825. ^

rRNA complementarity within mRNAs: A possible basis for mRNA-ribosome interactions and translational control

Our recent demonstration that many eukaryotic mRNAs contain sequences complementary to rRNA led to the hypothesis that these sequences might mediate specific interactions between mRNAs and ribosomes and thereby affect translation. In the present experiments, the ability of complementary sequences to bind to rRNA was investigated by using photochemical cross-linking. RNA probes with perfect complementarity to 18S or 28S rRNA were shown to cross-link specifically to the corresponding rRNA within intact ribosomal subunits. Similar results were obtained by using probes based on natural mRNA sequences with varying degrees of complementarity to the 18S rRNA. RNase H cleavage localized four such probes to complementary regions of the 18S rRNA. The effects of complementarity on translation were assessed by using the mRNA encoding ribosomal protein S15. This mRNA contains a sequence within its coding region that is complementary to the 18S rRNA at 20 of 22 nucleotides. RNA from an S15-luciferase fusion construct was translated in a cell-free lysate and compared with the translation of four related constructs that were mutated to decrease complementarity to the 18S rRNA. These mutations did not alter the amino acid sequence or the codon bias. A correlation between complementarity and translation was observed; constructs with less complementarity increased the amount of translation up to 54%. These findings raised the possibility that direct base-pairing of particular mRNAs to rRNAs within ribosomes may function as a mechanism of translational control.

Localization and activity of lysyl oxidase within nuclei of fibrogenic cells

Lysyl oxidase (EC 1.4.3.13) oxidizes peptidyl lysine to peptidyl aldehyde residues within collagen and elastin, thus initiating formation of the covalent cross-linkages that insolubilize these extracellular proteins. Recent findings raise the possibility that this enzyme may also function intracellularly. The present study provides evidence by immunocytochemical confocal microscopy, Western blot analysis, enzyme assays, and chemical analyses for lysyl oxidase reaction products that this enzyme is present and active within rat vascular smooth muscle cell nuclei. Confocal microscopy indicates its presence within nuclei of 3T3 fibroblasts, as well.