The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables, and florist and nursery stocks /

S/N 001-000-04478-8

Effect of seasonal variation and storage temperature on leaf chlorophyll fluorescence and vase life of cut roses

Low temperature injury (LTI) of roses (Rosa hybrida L.) is difficult to assess by visual observation. Relative chlorophyll fluorescence (CF; F-v/F-m) is a non-invasive technique that provides an index of stress effects on photosystem 11 (PS 11) activity. This instrumental technique allows determination of the photosynthetic efficiency of plant tissues containing chloroplasts, such as rose leaves. In the present study, pre- and Post-Storage measurements of F-v/F-m were carried out to assess LTI in 'First Red' and 'Akito' roses harvested year round. Relationships between the pre-harvest environment conditions of temperature, relative humidity and photon flux density (PFD), F-v/F-m, and, vase life duration after storage are reported. After harvest, roses were stored at 1, 5 and 10 degrees C for 10 days. Non-stored roses were the control treatment. F-v/F-m ratios were reduced following storage, suggesting LTI of roses. However, reductions in F-v/F-m were not closely correlated with reduced vase life duration and were seasonally dependent. Only during winter experiments was F-v/F-m of roses stored at 1 degrees C significantly (P <= 0.001) lower compared to F-v/F-m of non-stored control roses and roses stored at 5 and 10 degrees C. Thus, the fall of F-v/F-m was due to an interaction of growing season and storage at 1 degrees C. Vase lives of roses grown during winter were significantly (P <= 0.001) shorter compared to roses grown during summer. Length of vase life was intermediate for roses grown during autumn and spring. Because of the lack of correlation between F-v/F-m and post-storage vase life it is concluded that the CF parameter F-v/F-m is nota practical index for assessing LTI in cold-stored roses. Higher PFD and temperature in summer were positively and significantly correlated with maintenance of post-storage FvIF ratios and longer vase life. It is suggested that shorter vase lives and lower post-storage F-v/F-m values after storage at 1 degrees C are consequences of reduced photosynthesis and smaller carbohydrate pools in winter-harvested roses. (c) 2004 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved.

Product stability and sequestration mechanisms in Solanum tuberosum engineered to biosynthesize high value ketocarotenoids

To produce commercially valuable ketocarotenoids in Solanum tuberosum, the 4, 4′ β-oxygenase (crtW) and 3, 3′ β-hydroxylase (crtZ) genes from Brevundimonas spp. have been expressed in the plant host under constitutive transcriptional control. The CRTW and CRTZ enzymes are capable of modifying endogenous plant carotenoids to form a range of hydroxylated and ketolated derivatives. The host (cv. Désirée) produced significant levels of nonendogenous carotenoid products in all tissues, but at the apparent expense of the economically critical metabolite, starch. Carotenoid levels increased in both wild-type and transgenic tubers following cold storage; however, stability during heat processing varied between compounds. Subcellular fractionation of leaf tissues revealed the presence of ketocarotenoids in thylakoid membranes, but not predominantly in the photosynthetic complexes. A dramatic increase in the carotenoid content of plastoglobuli was determined. These findings were corroborated by microscopic analysis of chloroplasts. In tuber tissues, esterified carotenoids, representing 13% of the total pigment found in wild-type extracts, were sequestered in plastoglobuli. In the transgenic tubers, this proportion increased to 45%, with esterified nonendogenous carotenoids in place of endogenous compounds. Conversely, nonesterified carotenoids in both wild-type and transgenic tuber tissues were associated with amyloplast membranes and starch granules.

Between-tree variation in fruit quality and fruit mineral concentrations of Hass avocados

Inconsistent internal fruit quality in Hass avocados affects consumer confidence. To determine the influence of individual trees on fruit quality, Hass avocado fruit were harvested from adjacent trees of similar external appearance in 3 commercial orchards in 1998 and 1 orchard in 1999. The trees in each orchard were grown with similar commercial practices and in similar soil types. Within each location, there were significant (P<0.05) differences in the mean ripe fruit quality between trees with respect to fruit body rot severity (mainly anthracnose) with and without cold storage, internal disorders severity due to diffuse discolouration and vascular browning (after cold storage), days to ripen, percentage dry matter, and the percentage of the skin area with purple-black colour when ripe. These effects were also noted in the same orchard in 1999. There were significant (P<0.05) differences in fruit flesh calcium, magnesium, potassium, boron and zinc concentrations between trees. Significant (P<0.05) correlations were observed between average fruit mineral concentrations in each tree (particularly calcium, magnesium and potassium) and body rot severity, percentage dry matter and fruit mass. There was little conclusive evidence that characteristics such as the growth of the non-suberised roots or the degree of scion under- or overgrowth was involved in these tree effects; however, differences between trees with respect to other rootstock characteristics may be involved. The inconsistency of the correlations across sites and years suggested that other factors apart from tree influences could also affect the relationship between fruit minerals and fruit quality.

Production of bacteriocins by Streptococcus bovis strains from Australian ruminants.

Aims: To examine the prevalence of bacteriocin production in Streptococcus bovis isolates from Australian ruminants and the feasibility of industrial production of bacteriocin. Methods and Results: Streptococcus bovis strains were tested for production of bacteriocin-like inhibitory substances (BLIS) by antagonism assay against Lactococcus lactis. BLIS production was associated with source animal location (i.e. proximity of other bacteriocin-positive source animals) rather than ruminant species/breed or diet. One bacteriocin showing strong inhibitory activity (Sb15) was isolated and examined. Protein sequence, stability and activity spectrum of this bovicin were very similar to bovicin HC5. Production could be increased through serial culturing, and increased productivity could be partially maintained during cold storage of cultures. Conclusions: BLIS production is geographically widely distributed in Eastern Australia, and it appears that the bacteriocin+ trait is maintained in animals at the same location. The HC5-like bacteriocin, originally identified in North America, is also found in Australia. Production of bacteriocin can be increased through serial culturing. Significance and Impact of the Study: The HC5-like bacteriocins appear to have a broad global distribution. Serial culturing may provide a route towards commercial manufacturing for use in industrial applications, and purified bacteriocin from S. bovis Sb15 could potentially be used to prevent food spoilage or as a feed additive to promote growth in ruminant species.

Assessing refrigerating and freezing effects on the biological/chemical composition of two livestock manures

Assessing storage impacts on manure properties is relevant to research associated with nutrient-use efficiency and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We examined the impact of cold storage on physicochemical properties, biochemical methane-emitting potential (BMP) and the composition of microbial communities of beef feedlot manure and poultry broiler litter. Manures were analysed within 2 days of collection and after 2 and 8 weeks in refrigerated (4 °C) or frozen (–20 °C) storage. Compared with fresh manure, stored manures had statistically significant (p < 0.05) but comparatively minor (<10%) changes in electrical conductivity, chloride and ammonium concentrations. Refrigeration and freezing did not significantly affect (p > 0.05) BMP in both manure types. We did not detect ammonium- or nitrite-oxidising bacterial taxa (AOB, NOB) using fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH). Importantly, the viability of microbes was unchanged by storage. We conclude that storage at –20 °C or 4 °C adequately preserves the investigated traits of the studied manures for research aimed at improving nutrient cycling and reducing GHG emissions.

Characterisation of antibiotic-resistant psychrotrophic bacteria in raw milk

Dynamics of raw milk associated bacteria during cold storage of raw milk and their antibiotic resistance was reviewed, with focus on psychrotrophic bacteria. This study aimed to investigate the significance of cold storage of raw milk on antibiotic-resistant bacterial population and analyse the antibiotic resistance of the Gram-negative antibiotic-resistant psychrotrophic bacteria isolated from the cold-stored raw milk samples. Twenty-four raw milk samples, six at a time, were obtained from lorries that collected milk from Finnish farms and were stored at 4°C/4 d, 6°C/3 d and 6°C/4 d. Antibiotics representing four classes of antibiotics (gentamicin, ceftazidime, levofloxacin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole) were used to determine the antibiotic resistance of mesophilic and psychrotrophic bacteria during the storage period. A representative number of antibiotic-resistant Gram-negative isolates retrieved from the cold-stored raw milk samples were identified by the phenotypic API 20 NE system and a few isolates by the 16S rDNA gene sequencing. Some of the isolates were further evaluated for their antibiotic resistance by the ATB PSE 5 and HiComb system. The initial average mesophilic counts were found below 105 CFU/mL, suggesting that the raw milk samples were of good quality. However, the mesophilic and psychrotrophic population increased when stored at 4°C/4 d, 6°C/3 d and 6°C/4 d. Gentamicin- and levofloxacin-resistant bacteria increased moderately (P < 0.05) while there was a considerable rise (P < 0.05) of ceftazidime- and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole-resistant population during the cold storage. Of the 50.9 % (28) of resistant isolates (total 55) identified by API 20 NE, the majority were Sphingomonas paucimobilis (8), Pseudomonas putida (5), Sphingobacterium spiritivorum (3) and Acinetobacter baumanii (2). The analysis by ATB PSE 5 system suggested that 57.1% of the isolates (total 49) were multiresistant. This study showed that the dairy environment harbours multidrug-resistant Gramnegative psychrotrophic bacteria and the cold chain of raw milk storage amplifies the antibioticresistant psychrotrophic bacterial population.

Sustainable energy solutions for irrigation and harvesting in developing countries

One of the critical problems currently being faced by agriculture industry in developing nations is the alarming rate of groundwater depletion. Irrigation accounts for over 70% of the total groundwater withdrawn everyday. Compounding this issue is the use of polluting diesel generators to pump groundwater for irrigation. This has made irrigation not only the biggest consumer of groundwater but also one of the major contributors to green house gases. The aim of this thesis is to present a solution to the energy-water nexus. To make agriculture less dependent on fossil fuels, the use of a solar-powered Stirling engine as the power generator for on-farm energy needs is discussed. The Stirling cycle is revisited and practical and ideal Stirling cycles are compared. Based on agricultural needs and financial constraints faced by farmers in developing countries, the use of a Fresnel lens as a solar-concentrator and a Beta-type Stirling engine unit is suggested for sustainable power generation on the farms. To reduce the groundwater consumption and to make irrigation more sustainable, the conceptual idea of using a Stirling engine in drip irrigation is presented. To tackle the shortage of over 37 million tonnes of cold-storage in India, the idea of cost-effective solar-powered on-farm cold storage unit is discussed.

Studies on photoblastic germination in lettuce seed

It was shown, with the aid of osmotic inhibition of germination, that the action of the far-red-absorbing form of phytochrome (Pf) in promoting germination can be completed even if the seed is held under conditions where germination is not possible. An effect of the continuing action of Pf beyond the point of complete germination promotion was demonstrated by enhancement of germination rate after removal of the osmotically active solute.

Previous reports that the rate of growth in water of seeds freed from the expansion-restricting endosperm is independent of the state of phytochrome were confirmed. However, a marked, phytochrome-mediated enhancement of the growth potential of such seeds was demonstrated through restricting water uptake by incubation in an osmoticum.

An experimental system, utilizing the appearance of a geotropic curvature in the radicle of the excised axial portion of the seed, was developed for more detailed studies of the phytochrome-enhanced growth potential. It was possible to demonstrate the light effect in water as well as in osmotica; this apparently is not possible with de-endospermed entire seeds. As in intact seeds, the effect of the continuing action of Pf is to enhance the rate of the response. Secretion of a chemical inhibitor of growth by the endosperm as a possible mechanism of induction of light sensitivity has been ruled out.

The phytochrome-dependent rate of appearance of geotropic curvature in osmotica is paralleled in time by a similar dependence of the rate of early extension growth of the embryonic axis. Only the first small increment of growth is a differentially responsive to red (R) and far-red (F); the rate of later increase in length is independent of the light regime.

It was shown that the high concentrations of gibberellic acid required for germination promotion in the intact seed are due at least in part to a diffusion barrier in the endosperm, and that the occasional reports in the literature of the ineffectiveness of kinetin are probably due to the same phenomenon. It was shown that gibberellin, like red light, enhances the growth potential of the axis, but kinetin does not. The difference in rates of response obtained after R-irradiation or gibberellin treatment, together with other results reported in the literature, strongly suggests that gibberellic acid and red light promote germination by different means. The idea that kinetin promotes germination by yet another mechanism, probably operating in the cotyledons, was supported through two different experimental approaches.

The phenomenon of temperature-dependent dark germination was examined in detail, using a wide range of both temperatures and incubation times. With the aid of the half-seed system, it was demonstrated that the promotive effect of low temperature on germination could not be due to a low optimum temperature for early growth of the radicle, since the rate of that process increased with increasing temperature, up to the highest temperature used.

It was shown that phytochrome does not function at high temperatures. This fact is of considerable importance in interpreting the phenomenon of thermodormancy, since in the literature only a small part of the effect of high temperature has been ascribed to an effect on phytochrome, and at that, only to an acceleration of dark reversion of Pf to the red-absorbing form of phytochrome (Pr). Partial denaturation of phytochrome may also make some contribution.

It was shown that the germination-promoting effect of low temperature depends on the presence of Pf, and concluded that low temperatures act by delaying or preventing transformation of Pf. Support for the assumption that Pf, not Pr, is the active form of phytochrome in lettuce seeds was drawn from the same evidence.

Attempts to stimulate germination by repeated irradiation with F over relatively prolonged incubation times resulted in failure, as have similar attempts reported in the literature. However, an enhancement of growth potential in the half-seed system by the maintenance of a small amount of Pf over long periods at ordinary temperatures by repeated irradiation with F was demonstrated.

It was observed that cold storage of the dry seed prevents or delays loss of dark dormancy during post-harvest storage. No change in the response of the half-seed in osmoticum to R and F was observed in seeds that has lost dark dormancy; that is, no internal change took place to measurably increase the growth potential of the embryonic axis. This suggests that the endosperm is the seat of changes responsible for after-ripening of photoblastic lettuce seed.

Fifty years of reservoir fisheries in Mettur Dam, India: some lessons

The paper outlines briefly the history of the fishery in a dam reservoir in India. The reservoir was very productive in its early years, with support from a seed farm, ice plant, cold storage and regulated entry of fishery. However, once entry restrictions were relaxed and closed fishing seasons no longer enforced, the yield of fish from the reservoir declined.

Marketing of small indigenous species of fish (SIS) in three selected fish markets of Mymensingh

A socio-economic survey was conducted round the year in three fish markets at Mymensingh, Bangladesh. The selected markets were categorized as rural market (Sutiakhali market), a peri-urban market (Kamal Ranjeet market, BAU) and an urban market (Notun Bazar market, Mymensingh town). It was learnt from the survey that the availability of Small Indigenous Fish Species (SIS) declined to a great extent over the last few years and at presently many of such fish species are either threatened or at the edge of extinction. The supply of SIS was highest in KR market (37% of total) and more or less similar in Notun Bazar and Sutiakhali fish market (25 and 27% respectively). The total supply of SIS fluctuated from 25% to 35% throughout the year in these markets. About 48 SIS were found in the sampled markets over the survey period. The highest number of species (45) was found in KR market followed by Notun Bazar (42) and Sutiakhali (37) fish markets. During the survey, three critically endangered species namely, schilbid catfish, garua catfish and rita were found in these markets. Beside these, other 11 and 10 species were listed to be endangered and vulnerable respectively. The biodiversity of 21 SIS found in three markets were no threat at all. Three species (guntea loach, Indian glass barb and flying barb) were 'data deficient' as reported by the IUCN Red Book (IUCN-Bangladesh 2000). From the supply point of view small prawn, spotted snakehead, stinging catfish, pool barb, striped dwarf catfish, Gangetic mystus, walking catfish and tank goby were the prominent fish. The least available species found in this survey were lesser spiny eel, barred spiny eel, Gangetic ailia, freshwater garfish, zig-zag eel, flying barb, Ganges river sprat, freshwater river shad and dwarf gourami. The weight of SIS available in Notun bazar was highest and nearly double than other two markets. There was no significant difference recorded in the supply of SIS in Sutiakhali and KR markets. The average monthly SIS supply was 185, 192 and 467 kg in KR, Sutiakhali and Notun Bazar, respectively; therefore, the cumulative average supply was 844 kg per month in three markets. The price of SIS ranged widely from taka 50-450/kg depending on species, location of market, time of purchase and the condition of fish. In general small prawn, ticto barb, dwarf gourami, Gangetic leaffish, and Annandale loach were sold at a lower price (ranged taka 50-100/kg) and these species could be considered at the bottom of the market-price list. Other SIS like walking catfish, climbing parch, butter catfish, cotio and schilbid catfish valued as highest price (ranged taka 150-450/kg). There was no specific marketing chain for SIS in Mymensingh region. The components of marketing channels and their expansion varied with seasons and locations. The general pattern, however, was as this - after buying fish from fish farmer/fishermen, middlemen (locally known as Foria) used to buy fish to wholesale market and sell to the wholesalers. The retailers used to buy fish from wholesaler through auction to the highest bidders. The retailers then send the fish to particular market where the fish reached the consumers. The livelihood strategy of SIS retailers in three fish markets showed that socio-economic constraints such as low income, poor educational background, low economic status and lack of capital are the main constrains [sic]. Most of the retailers proposed that government should control the fish price throughout the year, so that the producers can get reasonable and stable price. Construction of cold storage and preservation facilities at market sites, improvement of road and communication, improvement of physical market facilities and reduction of market chain is essential. Credit facilities, improvement of their standard of living, health and sanitary condition, housing condition, children education and access to drinking water facilities were identified as additional aspects to improve socio-economic condition of SIS retailers.

Quality tolerances for water for use in fish processing

A survey on the sources and quality of water used in prawn processing factories has revealed much non-uniformity in the chemical quality. An attempt has been made to study the effect of varying concentrations of chemical constituents in the water used for prawn freezing and its influence on the quality of the prawn after freezing and during cold storage. The results of the study are reported in this communication, together with recommendations on the quality tolerances for water used in fish processing industry.

Quality loss in prawns due to double freezing

Icing is the practice for preserving prawns on board fishing boats in India. Majority of these boats need to preserve the catch only for a few hours because of the short duration of the fishing trip. However, with the anticipated introduction of a considerable number of bigger fishing vessels which can remain in the fishing ground for longer periods, more than fortnight, preservation methods, other than icing are required to retain prime quality. Freezing and cold storage of whole prawns on board followed by thawing and processing on land is a possible proposition. The extent of quality loss in prawns during these operations is one of the important points to be considered. Hence, laboratory scale studies were undertaken on double freezing of prawns and the results are dealt within this communication.

An assessment of handling and processing methods used for the shrimp fishery by-catch in Kalpitiya, Sri Lanka

The by-catch from the shrimp trawl fishery in Kalpitiya is mainly used for the production of dried fish, which provides an additional source of income for fishermen in the area. It has been observed that current handling practices along the value addition chain are responsible for the poor quality and low price of the end product. This study was aimed at identifying the shortcomings in such handling practices by fishermen and dried fish producers and assessing the quality of shrimp fishery by-catch along the processing chain in order to recommend more efficient utilization methods that will improve the quality of the end product. Fresh fish, dried fish and harbour water samples were tested for total coli forms, faecal coliforms, E. coli and Salmonella in order to assess their microbial quality: In addition, standard plate counts (SPC) of fish samples were also carried out. A survey was carried out from July-October 2006 at Kalpitiya, using a pre-tested questionnaire to collect information from individuals who have been engaged in dried fish processing. Average values obtained for freshly landed and dried fish respectively, were, SPC 9.88x10 super(5) CFU/g and 30.43x10 super(5) CFU/g, total coliforms 23.05 and 24.23 MPN/g and fecal coliforms 8.28 and 9.00 MPN/g. These values exceed the recommendations in the SL standards. A quarter of the landed fresh fish and 38% of dried fish from the producers were positive for E. coli and thus failed to show required end product quality. SPC of harbour water was 14.35x10 super(6) CFU/ml and all samples were found to be contaminated with E. coli. None of the fishermen and dried fish producers were satisfied with the quality of the end product. The reasons for poor quality as indicated by them were: limited availability of ice (75%), lack of infrastructure facilities (65%), uncertainty of markets (52%), lack of emphasis on quality (47%) and poor access to available technologies (41%). Respondents to the questionnaire also identified: unavailability of potable water, insulated boxes, good landing jetty, racks for drying fish, poor cold storage facilities and limitations in dried fish storage facilities, as further factors leading to the loss of quality in their products. Results demonstrate that improvements to the infrastructure facilities and conducting of proper awareness programmes on handling practices could lead for improvements in the quality of value added products prepared from the shrimp fishery by-catch at Kalpitiya.

TWO SPECIFIC CAUSES OF CELL MORTALITY IN FREEZE-THAW CYCLE OF YOUNG THALLI OF PORPHYRA YEZOENSIS (BANGIALES, RHODOPHYTA)1

Porphyra yezoensis Ueda is an important marine aquaculture crop with single-layered gametophytic thalli. In this work, the influences of thallus dehydration level, cold-preservation (freezing) time, and thawing temperature on the photosynthetic recovery of young P. yezoensis thalli were investigated employing an imaging pulse-amplitude-modulation (PAM) fluorometer. The results showed that after 40 d of frozen storage when performing thallus thawing under 10 degrees C, the water content of the thalli showed obvious effects on the photosynthetic recovery of the frozen thalli. The thalli with absolute water content (AWC) of 10%-40% manifested obvious superiority compared to the thalli with other AWCs, while the thalli thawed at 20 degrees C showed very high survival rate (93.10%) and no obvious correlation between thallus AWCs and thallus viabilities. These results indicated that inappropriate thallus water content contributed to the cell damage during the freeze-thaw cycle and that proper thawing temperature is very crucial. Therefore, AWC between 10% and 40% is the suitable thallus water content range for frozen storage, and the thawing process should be as short as possible. However, it is also shown that for short-term cold storage the Porphyra thallus water content also showed no obvious effect on the photosynthetic recovery of the thalli, and the survival rate was extremely high (100%). These results indicated that freezing time is also a paramount contributor of the cell damage during the freeze-thaw cycle. Therefore, the frozen nets should be used as soon as time permits.