Causal factors of anxiety symptoms in children

Aim: The present work aimed to investigate the impact of the child’s cognitions associated with ambiguous stimuli that refer to anxiety, both parents’ fears and anxiety, and parents’ attributions to the child’s interpretations of ambiguous stimuli on child anxiety. The influence of parental modelling on child’s cognitions was also analyzed. Method: The final sample was composed of 111 children (62 boys; 49 girls) with ages between 10 and 11 years (M = 10.6, SD = 0.5) from a community population, and both their parents. The variables identified as most significant were included in a predictive model of anxiety. Results: Results revealed the children’s thoughts (positive and negative) related to ambiguous stimuli that describe anxiety situations. Parents’ fears and mothers’ anxiety significantly predict children’s anxiety. Those variables explain 29% of the variance in children general anxiety. No evidence was found for a direct parental modeling of child cognitions. Conclusion: Children’s positive thoughts seem to be cognitive aspects that buffer against anxiety. Negative thoughts are vulnerability factors for the development of child anxiety. Parents’ fears and anxiety should be analyzed in separate as they have distinct influences over children’s anxiety. Mothers’ fears contribute to children’s anxiety by reducing it, revealing a possible protective effect. It is suggested that the contribution of both parents’ fears to children’s anxiety may be interpreted acknowledging the existence of “psychological and/or behavioral filters”. Mothers’ filters seem to be well developed while fathers’ filters seem to be compromised. The contribution of mothers’ anxiety (but not fathers’ anxiety) to children’s anxiety is also understood in light of the possible existence of a “proximity space” between the child and parents, which is wider with mothers than with fathers.

Cognitive-behavioural interventions for children who have been sexually abused

Background: Despite differences in how it is defined, there is a general consensus amongst clinicians and researchers that the sexual abuse of children and adolescents (’child sexual abuse’) is a substantial social problem worldwide. The effects of sexual abuse manifest in a wide range of symptoms, including fear, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder and various externalising and internalising behaviour problems, such as inappropriate sexual behaviours. Child sexual abuse is associated with increased risk of psychological problems in adulthood. Cognitive-behavioural approaches are used to help children and their non-offending or ’safe’ parent tomanage the sequelae of childhood sexual abuse. This review updates the first Cochrane review of cognitive-behavioural approaches interventions for children who have been sexually abused, which was first published in 2006.

Objectives: To assess the efficacy of cognitive-behavioural approaches (CBT) in addressing the immediate and longer-term sequelae of sexual abuse on children and young people up to 18 years of age.

Search methods: We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) (2011 Issue 4); MEDLINE (1950 to November Week
3 2011); EMBASE (1980 to Week 47 2011); CINAHL (1937 to 2 December 2011); PsycINFO (1887 to November Week 5 2011); LILACS (1982 to 2 December 2011) and OpenGrey, previously OpenSIGLE (1980 to 2 December 2011). For this update we also searched ClinicalTrials.gov and the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP).

Selection criteria: We included randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials of CBT used with children and adolescents up to age 18 years who had experienced being sexually abused, compared with treatment as usual, with or without placebo control.

Data collection and analysis: At least two review authors independently assessed the eligibility of titles and abstracts identified in the search. Two review authors independently extracted data from included studies and entered these into Review Manager 5 software. We synthesised and presented data in both written and graphical form (forest plots).

Main results: We included 10 trials, involving 847 participants. All studies examined CBT programmes provided to children or children and a nonoffending parent. Control groups included wait list controls (n = 1) or treatment as usual (n = 9). Treatment as usual was, for the most part, supportive, unstructured psychotherapy. Generally the reporting of studies was poor. Only four studies were judged ’low risk of bias’ with regards to sequence generation and only one study was judged ’low risk of bias’ in relation to allocation concealment. All studies were judged ’high risk of bias’ in relation to the blinding of outcome assessors or personnel; most studies did not report on these, or other issues of bias. Most studies reported results for study completers rather than for those recruited.

Depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety and child behaviour problems were the primary outcomes. Data suggest that CBT may have a positive impact on the sequelae of child sexual abuse, but most results were not statistically significant. Strongest evidence for positive effects of CBT appears to be in reducing PTSD and anxiety symptoms, but even in these areas effects tend to be 'moderate’ at best. Meta-analysis of data from five studies suggested an average decrease of 1.9 points on the Child Depression Inventory immediately after intervention (95% confidence interval (CI) decrease of 4.0 to increase of 0.4; I2 = 53%; P value for heterogeneity = 0.08), representing a small to moderate effect size. Data from six studies yielded an average decrease of 0.44 standard deviations on a variety of child post-traumatic stress disorder scales (95% CI 0.16 to 0.73; I2 = 46%; P value for heterogeneity = 0.10). Combined data from five studies yielded an average decrease of 0.23 standard deviations on various child anxiety scales (95% CI 0.3 to 0.4; I2=0%; P value for heterogeneity = 0.84). No study reported adverse effects.

Authors’ conclusions: The conclusions of this updated review remain the same as those when it was first published. The review confirms the potential of CBT to address the adverse consequences of child sexual abuse, but highlights the limitations of the evidence base and the need for more carefully conducted and better reported trials.

La présence de symptômes émotionnels chez l’enfant placé et les liens avec son intégration familiale, sociale et scolaire

Exposés à de multiples facteurs de risque avant et pendant le placement, les enfants placés présentent une prévalence élevée de troubles intériorisés. Ces troubles peuvent entraver leur intégration familiale, sociale et scolaire. L’objectif de ce mémoire est de tracer un portrait des enfants placés présentant des troubles intériorisés afin de mieux les repérer pour ainsi mieux les soutenir, ainsi que les adultes qui en prennent soin. L’échantillon est composé de 62 enfants, âgés de 10 à 12 ans, placés en famille d’accueil régulière et impliqués dans le projet S’Occuper des Enfants (SOCEN). Les données analysées proviennent du Cahier d’évaluation et de suivi (CÉS-C2), outil clinique (avec mesures standardisées) dans lequel l’intervenant, le parent d’accueil et l’enfant inscrivent des informations sur différents aspects du développement de l’enfant. Des variables relatives au placement ainsi que d’autres portant sur l’intégration familiale, sociale et scolaire de l’enfant placé sont mises en relation avec les scores de la sous-échelle des symptômes émotionnels du Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire à l’aide de corrélations de Pearson et d’ANOVA. Près de 19% des 62 enfants éprouvent des symptômes émotionnels élevés. Les résultats révèlent la forte présence de troubles extériorisés (troubles hyperactifs, troubles de la conduite) chez les enfants placés présentant des symptômes émotionnels élevés. Ces enfants éprouvent aussi plus de problèmes avec les pairs. Ceux qui ont vécu plus de trois placements présentent davantage de symptômes émotionnels élevés.

La relation d’activation père-enfant, les problèmes intériorisés et l’anxiété chez les enfants d’âge préscolaire.

La relation d’activation père-enfant est une nouvelle théorisation du lien d’attachement au père faisant référence au pôle exploration. Cette relation se développe dès la deuxième année de l’enfant et principalement à travers les jeux physiques. La relation d’activation met prioritairement l’accent sur l’ouverture au monde et permet alors de répondre avant tout au besoin de l’enfant d’être stimulé et de se surpasser, venant compléter ses besoins de sécurité premiers. L’objectif de la présente thèse est d’étudier les liens entre la relation d’activation au père et le développement socio-affectif des enfants à l’âge préscolaire, plus précisément en matière de problèmes intériorisés (PI) et d’anxiété. Deux articles empiriques composent cette thèse. Le premier a été réalisé avec un échantillon de convenance composé de 51 dyades père-enfant. Les analyses démontrent les liens anticipés entre la sous-activation et les PI : les enfants sous-activés ont significativement plus de PI que les enfants activés. Également, l’association initialement observée entre le score d’activation et les PI reste significative même après avoir contrôlé pour certaines variables comme le sexe et le tempérament de l’enfant ainsi que les comportements parentaux. Plus les enfants étaient activés positivement dans leur relation avec leur père, moins ils présentaient de PI. Enfin, l’exploration des liens entre la relation d’activation et les sous-échelles des PI a révélé un lien unique avec l’anxiété. Le deuxième article a été réalisé avec 49 familles issues d’une population clinique (c.-à-d. service de pédopsychiatrie). Il est le premier à mettre en lien l’activation au père, l’attachement à la mère et l’anxiété chez l’enfant d’âge préscolaire. Les analyses confirment les résultats déjà existants en matière d’attachement mère-enfant et d’anxiété; ce sont les enfants insécurisés, plus précisément les enfants insécurisés-ambivalents et insécurisés-désorganisés-contrôlants du sous-type caregiving qui présentent le plus d’anxiété. Les hypothèses concernant les liens entre l’anxiété et l’activation ne sont quant à elles pas confirmées. Enfin, un effet de modération de la relation d’activation père-enfant est mis en évidence sur l’association entre l’attachement à la mère et l’anxiété chez l’enfant; la relation d’activation peut être considérée comme un facteur de protection ou de risque. Les résultats de la présente thèse sont discutés à la lumière de la théorie de l’attachement et de deux modèles étiologiques de l’anxiété (c.-à-d. modèle de psychopathologie développementale et modèle évolutionniste). Cette thèse pourrait mener au développement de programmes de prévention et d’intervention qui prendraient en considération les deux figures parentales.

Comorbilidad entre los factores de ansiedad del SCARED y la sintomatolog??a depresiva en ni??os de 8-12 a??os

Resumen tomado de la publicaci??n

Comorbilidad entre los factores de ansiedad del SCARED y la sintomatología depresiva en niños de 8-12 años

El objetivo de este estudio fue examinar la comorbilidad entre los factores de ansiedad del SCARED y síntomas depresivos en niños de 8-12 años. 792 niñas y 715 niños completaron el Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorder (SCARED), el Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI) y un cuestionario de datos sociodemográficos. El 47% de la muestra presentó síntomas ansiosos y el 11,5% presentó síntomas depresivos. La comorbilidad heterotípica fue del 82% en niños con riesgo de depresión y del 20% en niños con riesgo de ansiedad. La comorbilidad homotípica entre los factores de ansiedad fue del 87%. La comorbilidad homotípica y heterotípica fueron elevadas, su detección hará posible prevenir la continuidad de un trastorno de ansiedad y el desarrollo de depresión

Threat interpretation in anxious children and their mothers: comparison with nonclinical children and the effects of treatment

Interpretation biases towards threat play a prominent role in cognitive theories of anxiety, and have been identified amongst highly anxious adults and children. Little is known, however, about the development of these cognitive biases although family processes have been implicated. The current study investigated the nature of threat interpretation of anxious children and their mothers through (i) comparison of a clinic and non-clinic population, (ii) analysis of individual differences; and (ill) pre- and post-treatment comparisons. Participants were 27 children with a primary anxiety disorder and 33 children from a non-clinic population and their mothers. Children and mothers completed self-report measures of anxiety and indicated their most likely interpretation of ambiguous scenarios. Clinic and non-clinical groups differed significantly on measures of threat interpretation. Furthermore, mothers' and children's threat interpretation correlated significantly. Following treatment for child anxiety, both children and their mothers reported a reduction in threat interpretation. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The impact of maternal control on children’s anxious cognitions, behaviours and affect: an experimental study

Controlling parenting is associated with child anxiety however the direction of effects remains unclear. The present study implemented a Latin-square experimental design to assess the impact of parental control on children’s anxious affect, cognitions and behaviour. A non-clinical sample of 24 mothers of children aged 4-5 years were trained to engage in (a) controlling and (b) autonomy-granting behaviours in interaction with their child during the preparation of a speech. When mothers engaged in controlling parenting behaviours, children made more negative predictions about their performance prior to delivering their speech and reported feeling less happy about the task, and this was moderated by child trait anxiety. In addition, children with higher trait anxiety displayed a significant increase in observed child anxiety in the controlling condition. The pattern of results was maintained when differences in mothers’ levels of negativity and habitual levels of control were accounted for. These findings are consistent with theories that suggest that controlling parenting is a risk factor in the development of childhood anxiety.

Threat interpretation bias in anxious children and their mothers

The role of parents in the development of anxiety disorders in children is of increasing research and clinical interest. This study investigated interpretation biases of anxious children and their mothers using the ambiguous stimuli task developed by Hadwin, Frost, French, and Richards (1997). Three groups of children (aged 7 to 12 years) and their mothers were recruited; 23 non-clinical controls, 18 children with an anxiety disorder and 15 children with an externalising disorder. Following diagnostic assessments of the children, children and their mothers independently completed the homophone task and self-report measures of anxiety. Mothers of anxious children had significantly higher self-reported anxiety than mothers of non-clinical children. As hypothesised, children in the anxious group had higher threat interpretation scores than the non-clinical group. The hypothesis that mothers of anxious children would make more threat interpretations was not supported. Paired correlations showed no significant association between threat interpretations made by children and their mothers. There was a significant positive correlation between maternal threat interpretation and child anxiety. The results suggest that there is a complex association between mother's anxiety and cognitions and those of their children, which requires further examination in controlled observational and experimental studies, including treatment trials.

High impulsivity as a risk factor for the development of internalizing disorders in detained juvenile offenders

Background : Whilst impulsivity is most commonly linked to the development of internalizing disorders, high levels of impulsivity, anxiety, and depression have been found in detained juvenile offenders. We therefore sought to determine whether impulsivity is associated with the development of self-reported anxiety or depression in a sample of detained juvenile offenders.

Methods : 323 male juvenile offenders and 86 typically developing controls, aged 15–17 were assessed. The Schedule for Affective Disorder and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children Present and Lifetime (SADS-PL) was used to assess psychiatric diagnoses, the Barratt Impulsivity Scale (BIS-11) was used to measure impulsivity, and the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED) and the Birleson Depression Self-Rating Scale (DSRS) were used to assess self-reported anxiety and depression respectively.

Results : Compared to controls, juvenile offenders had significantly higher scores on the BIS-11 total, as well as on the motor and nonplanning subscales (all p values <0.001), as well as higher DSRS (p < 0.001) and SCARED (p < 0.05) scores. Within the juvenile offender group, scores on the SCARED correlated positively with BIS-11 total, attention subscale, motor subscale, and total DSRS (all p values <0.01). DSRS scores correlated positively with BIS-11 total, attention subscale, nonplanning subscale, and total SCARED scores (all p values <0.01). Participants were then categorized low, middle or high impulsivity according to scores on the BIS-11. One-way ANOVAs demonstrated a significant difference between these tertiles on DSRS [F(2,320) = 4.862, p < 0.05] and SCARED total scores [F(2,320) = 3.581, p < 0.05]. Specifically, post-hoc analyses found that the high impulsivity tertile scored significant higher than the remaining tertiles on both DSRS (16.1 ± 0.3 vs. 14.0 ± 0.6, p < 0.05) and SCARED (23.3 ± 0.9 vs. 18.4 ± 1.4, p < 0.05) scores. Using multiple linear regression, BIS-11 attention scores, number of months served in custody, age, and BIS-11 nonplanning scores predicted higher levels of anxiety, whilst only BIS-11 attention and nonplanning scores predicted higher levels of depression.

Conclusions : In detained juvenile offenders, high impulsivity may be an important risk factor not only for the externalizing disorders, but also for anxiety and depression. Results of this study, therefore, suggest that specific facets of impulsivity may represent one mechanism underlying the emergence of anxiety and depression in this population.

Evidence for retarded extinction of aversive learning in anxious children

The habituation to intense acoustic stimuli and the acquisition of differentially conditioned fear were assessed in 53 clinically anxious and 30 non-anxious control children and young adolescents. Anxious children tended to show larger electrodermal responses during habituation, but did not differ in blink startle latency or magnitude. After acquisition training, non-anxious children rated the CS + as more fear provoking and arousing than the CS- whereas the ratings of anxious children did not differ. However, anxious children rated the CS + as more fear provoking after extinction, a difference that was absent in non-anxious children. During extinction training, anxious children displayed larger blink magnitude facilitation during CS + and a trend towards larger electrodermal responses, a tendency not seen in nonanxious children. These data suggest that extinction of fear learning is retarded in anxious children. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Early intervention for children and their parents following paediatric accidental injury

This study was undertaken to develop and evaluate the efficacy of an early intervention for children who had been injured in an accident. The aim of the intervention was to prevent the development of longterm psychological consequences. Brochures were developed for children, adolescents, and their parents. These brochures detailed common responses to trauma (and normalized such responses), and suggestions for minimizing any post-trauma distress. Participants were children aged 7-15 admitted to hospital for traumatic injury. The intervention was delivered to one of two hospitals, within 72 hours of the trauma. 103 children and parents participated in the study. The parents and children completed structured interviews and questionnaires 2 weeks, 4-6 weeks and 6 months post-trauma. Outcome analyses also indicated that the intervention reduced parental distress at 4-6 weeks post-trauma. The intervention did not impact significantly on child adjustment over this time period. Results of the 6 month follow-up suggested that the intervention resulted in an amelioration of child anxiety from one to six months post-trauma, whereas the controls exhibited an increase in anxiety over this time period. Overall, it was concluded that the early intervention is a simple, practical, and cost-effective method of reducing child and parent distress post-trauma.

Family and group cognitive behavior therapy: Evaluation of treatment outcome and treatment specificity

This dissertation examined the efficacy of family cognitive behavior treatment (FCBT) and group cognitive behavior treatment (GBCT) for reducing anxiety disorders in children and adolescents using several approaches: clinical significant change, equivalence testing, and analyses of variance. It also examined treatment specificity in terms of targeting family/parents (in FCBT) and peers/group (in GCBT) contextual variables using two main approaches: analyses of variance and structural equation modeling (SEM). The sample consisted of 143 children and their parents who presented to the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program housed within the Child and Family Psychosocial Research Center at Florida International University. Diagnostic interviews and questionnaires were administered to assess youth anxiety. Questionnaires were administered to assess child and parent views of family/parents and peers/group contextual variables. In terms of clinical significant change, results indicated that 84.6% of youth in FCBT and 71.2% of youth in GBCT no longer met diagnostic criteria for their primary/targeted anxiety disorder. In addition, results from analyses of variance indicated that FCBT and GCBT were both efficacious in reducing anxiety disorders in youth across both child and parent ratings. Results using both analyses of variance and structural equation modeling also indicated that there was no meaningful treatment specificity between FCBT and GCBT in terms of either family/parents or peers/group contextual variables. That is, child social skills improved in GCBT in which these skills were targeted and in FCBT in which these skills were not targeted; parenting skills improved in FCBT in which these skills were targeted and in GCBT in which these skills were not targeted. Clinical implications and future research recommendations are discussed.

Evaluating the external validity of comorbid disorders in youth using rating scales and behavior observations

To evaluate the theoretical underpinnings of current categorical approaches to classify childhood psychopathological conditions, this dissertation examined whether children with a single diagnosis of an anxiety disorder (ANX only) and children with an anxiety diagnosis comorbid with other diagnoses (i.e., anxiety + anxiety disorder [ANX + ANX], anxiety + depressive disorder [ANX + DEP], and anxiety + disruptive disorder [ANX + EXT]) could be differentiated using external validation criteria of clinical phenomenology (i.e., levels of anxiety, depression, and internalizing, externalizing and total behavior problems). This study further examined whether the four groups could be differentiated in terms of their interaction patterns with their parents and peers, respectively. The sample consisted of 129 youth and their parents who presented to the Child Anxiety and Phobia Program (CAPP) housed within the Child and Family Psychosocial Research Center at Florida International University, Miami. Youth were between the ages of 8 and 14 years old. A battery of questionnaires was used to assess participants' clinical presentation in terms of levels of anxiety, depression, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Family and peer interaction were evaluated through rating scales and through behavior observation tasks. Statistics based on the parameter estimates of the structured equation models indicated that all the comorbid groups were significantly different from the pure anxiety disorder group when it came to depression indices of clinical phenomenology. Further, significant differences appeared mainly in terms of the ANX + DEP comorbid group relative to the other comorbid groups. In terms of Parent-child interaction the ANX + EXT and the ANX + DEP comorbid groups were differentiated from the pure anxiety disorder and ANX + ANX comorbid group when it came to the appraisal of the parent/child relationship by the parent, and the acceptance subscale according to the mother report. In terms of peer-child interaction the ANX + EXT and the ANX + DEP comorbid groups were statistically significantly different from the pure anxiety disorder only when it came to the positive interactions and the social skills as rated by mother. Limitations and future research recommendations are discussed.