Regulation of the activity of DnaA and its role during the cell cycle of caulobacter crescentus

The initiation of chromosomal replication must be tightly regulated so that the genome is replicated only once per cell cycle. In most bacteria, DnaA binds to the origin of replication and initiates chromosomal replication. DnaA is a dual-function protein that also acts as an important transcription factor that regulates the expression of many genes in bacteria. Thus, understanding how this protein is regulated during the bacterial cell cycle is of major importance. The α-proteobacterium Caulobacter crescentus is an excellent model to study the bacterial cell cycle, mainly because it is possible to isolate synchronized cell cultures and because it initiates the replication of its chromosome once per cell cycle and at a specific time of the cell cycle. This latest feature is of special interest for the major aim of my thesis work, which focused on the temporal and spatial regulation of the activity of the essential DnaA protein in C. crescentus. In Escherichia coli, the Hda protein converts ATP-DnaA into ADP- DnaA by stimulating the ATPase activity of DnaA, to prevent over-initiation of chromosome replication. We propose that there exists a similar mechanism in C. crescentus, which is not only involved in the temporal control of chromosome replication, but also in the control of gene expression. First, we provided evidences indicating that the hydrolysis of the ATP bound to DnaA is essential for the viability of C. crescentus. Our results suggest that ATP-DnaA promotes the initiation of chromosome replication, since we found that cells over-expressing a DnaA protein with a mutated ATPase domain, DnaA(R357A), over-initiated chromosome replication, unlike cells expressing the wild-type DnaA protein at similar levels. By contrast, the DnaA(R357A) protein was less active than DnaA in promoting the transcription of three essential genes, suggesting that these may be more efficiently activated by ADP-DnaA than ATP-DnaA. We propose that the ATP-DnaA to ADP-DnaA switch down-regulates the initiation of DNA replication while activating the transcription of several essential genes involved in subsequent cell cycle events. Second, we studied the role of the HdaA protein, homologous to Hda, in promoting the ATP- DnaA to ADP-DnaA switch in C. crescentus. HdaA is essential for viability and its depletion in the cell leads to an over-replication of the chromosome, indicating that HdaA is a negative regulator of DNA replication. HdaA dynamically co-localizes with the replisome. In this work, we identified DnaN, the β-clamp of the DNA polymerase, as the replisome component that interacts directly with HdaA and that recruits HdaA to the replisome in live C. crescentus cells. We also showed that a mutant HdaA protein that cannot interact or co-localize with DnaN is not functional, indicating that HdaA is probably activated by DnaN. However, we found that another non-functional HdaA protein, mutated in the conserved Arginine finger of its AAA+ domain, was able to localize at the replisome, suggesting that the AAA+ domain of HdaA exerts its essential function after the recruitment of HdaA to the replisome. We propose that HdaA stimulates the ATPase activity of DnaA once DNA replication is ongoing, via its interaction with DnaN and the activity of the two conserved R fingers of DnaA and HdaA. Finally, we created different strains in which HdaA, DnaN or DnaA were over-produced. We observed that the over-production of HdaA seems to lead to a delay in chromosome replication, while the over-production of DnaN had an opposite effect. Our results also indicate that the over-production of DnaA may intensify the over-initiation phenotype of cells depleted for HdaA. We conclude that the dynamic interplay of HdaA and DnaN in the cell contributes to regulating the ATP-DnaA/ADP-DnaA ratio in the cell, to ensure once per cell cycle initiation of chromosomal replication in C. crescentus. Altogether, our work provided important information on the regulation of the activity of DnaA in C. crescentus. Since DnaA, HdaA and DnaN are well-conserved proteins, most of our findings are useful to understand how chromosome replication and gene expression are controlled by DnaA in many other bacterial species. - L'initiation de la réplication des chromosomes doit être précisément régulée de telle sorte que le génome ne soit répliqué qu'une seule fois par cycle cellulaire. Chez la plupart des bactéries, DnaA se lie à l'origine de réplication du chromosome et en initie sa réplication. DnaA est aussi un facteur de transcription qui régule l'expression de nombreux gènes bactériens. De ce fait, il est très important de comprendre comment DnaA est régulée au cours du cycle cellulaire bactérien. L'a-protéobactérie Caulobacter crescentus est un excellent modèle pour étudier le cycle cellulaire bactérien, essentiellement parce qu'il est aisé d'isoler des populations de cellules synchronisées à la même étape du cycle cellulaire et parce que cette bactérie n'initie la réplication de son chromosome qu'une seule fois et à un moment précis de son cycle. Cette dernière caractéristique est particulièrement pertinente pour l'objectif de mon travail doctoral, qui consistait à comprendre comment l'activité de la protéine essentielle DnaA est régulée dans l'espace et dans le temps chez C. crescentus. Chez Escherichia coli, la protéine Hda convertie DnaA-ATP en DnaA-ADP en stimulant l'activité ATPasique de DnaA, ce qui empêche la sur-initiation de la réplication du chromosome. Nous proposons qu'un mécanisme similaire existe chez C. crescentus. Il serait non seulement nécessaire au contrôle de la réplication du chromosome, mais aussi au contrôle de l'expression de certains gènes. Dans un premier temps, nous avons mis en évidence le fait que l'hydrolyse de l'ATP lié à DnaA est un processus essentiel à la viabilité de C. crescentus. Nos résultats suggèrent que DnaA-ATP initie la réplication du chromosome, comme nous avons observé que des cellules qui sur-expriment une protéine DnaA(R357A) mutée sans domaine ATPasique fonctionnel, sur-initie la réplication de leur chromosome, contrairement aux cellules qui sur-expriment la protéine DnaA sauvage à des niveaux équivalents. Au contraire, la protéine DnaA(R357A) était moins active que la protéine DnaA sauvage pour promouvoir la transcription de trois gènes essentiels, ce qui suggère que ces derniers sont peut-être plus efficacement activés par DnaA-ADP que DnaA-ATP. Nous proposons que la conversion de DnaA-ATP en DnaA-ADP réprime l'initiation de la réplication, tandis qu'elle active la transcription de plusieurs gènes impliqués dans des étapes plus tardives du cycle cellulaire. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons étudié le rôle de la protéine HdaA, homologue à Hda, dans la conversion de DnaA-ATP en DnaA-ADP chez C. crescentus. Cette protéine est essentielle à la viabilité de C. crescentus et sa déplétion donne des cellules qui sur-initient la réplication de leur chromosome, suggérant que HdaA est un répresseur de la réplication du chromosome. HdaA co-localise de manière dynamique avec le réplisome. Lors de mon travail doctoral, nous avons démontré que DnaN, le β-clamp de l'ADN polymérase, est l'élément qui recrute HdaA au réplisome in vivo. Nous avons aussi montré qu'une protéine HdaA mutante qui ne peut pas interagir ou co-localiser avec DnaN, n'est pas fonctionnelle, ce qui suggère que HdaA est activée par DnaN. Nous avons néanmoins aussi isolé une autre protéine HdaA non fonctionnelle, dont une arginine conservée de son domaine AAA+ était mutée, mais qui pouvait toujours co-localiser avec le réplisome, ce qui suggère que le domaine AAA+ de HdaA est nécessaire après le recrutement de HdaA au réplisome. Nous proposons que HdaA stimule l'activité ATPasique de DnaA qu'une fois que la réplication a commencé, grâce à son interaction avec DnaN et aux deux arginines conservées des protéines HdaA et DnaA. Finalement, nous avons construit différentes souches sur-exprimant HdaA, DnaN ou DnaA. Nous avons observé que la sur-production de HdaA retarde la réplication du chromosome, tandis que la sur-production de DnaN a un effet opposé. Nos observations suggèrent aussi que la sur-expression de DnaA dans des cellules déplétées pour HdaA aggrave leur phénotype de sur-initiation. Nous en concluons que HdaA et DnaN collaborent étroitement et de manière dynamique pour réguler le rapport DnaA-ATP/DnaA-ADP dans la cellule, pour s'assurer que la réplication du chromosome ne soit initiée qu'une seule fois par cycle cellulaire chez C. crescentus. Globalement, notre travail a mis en évidence des informations importantes sur la régulation de l'activité de DnaA chez C. crescentus. Comme DnaA, HdaA et DnaN sont des protéines très conservées, la plupart de nos découvertes sont utiles pour mieux comprendre comment la réplication du chromosome bactérien et l'expression des gènes sont contrôlées par DnaA chez de nombreuses autres espèces bactériennes.

Cell cycle control in Alphaproteobacteria.

NlmCategory="UNASSIGNED">Alphaproteobacteria include many medically and environmentally important organisms. Despite the diversity of their niches and lifestyles, from free-living to host-associated, they usually rely on very similar mechanisms to control their cell cycles. Studies on Caulobacter crescentus still lay the foundation for understanding the molecular details of pathways regulating DNA replication and cell division and coordinating these two processes with other events of the cell cycle. This review highlights recent discoveries on the regulation and the mode of action of conserved global regulators and small molecules like c-di-GMP and (p)ppGpp, which play key roles in cell cycle control. It also describes several newly identified mechanisms that modulate cell cycle progression in response to stresses or environmental conditions.

NFAT transcription factors: from cell cycle to tumor development

The nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) family of transcription factors has been primarily identified in immune cells; however, these proteins have been recently found to be functionally active in several other non-immune cell types. NFAT proteins are activated upon different stimuli that lead to increased intracellular calcium levels. Regardless of their widely known cytokine gene expression properties, NFATs have been shown to regulate other genes related to cell cycle progression, cell differentiation and apoptosis, revealing a broader role for these proteins in normal cell physiology. Several reports have addressed the participation of NFATs in many aspects of malignant cell transformation and tumorigenic processes. In this review, we will discuss the involvement of the different NFAT family members in the regulation of cell cycling, differentiation and tumor formation, and also its implications on oncogenesis. Better understanding the mechanisms by which NFATs regulate cell cycle and tumor-related events should be relevant for the development of rational anti-cancer therapies.

REGγ is a strong candidate for the regulation of cell cycle, proliferation and the invasion by poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma cells

REGγ is a proteasome activator that facilitates the degradation of small peptides. Abnormally high expression of REGγ has been observed in thyroid carcinomas. The purpose of the present study was to explore the role of REGγ in poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma (PDTC). For this purpose, small interfering RNA (siRNA) was introduced to down-regulate the level of REGγ in the PDTC cell line SW579. Down-regulation of REGγ at the mRNA and protein levels was confirmed by RT-PCR and Western blot analyses. FACS analysis revealed cell cycle arrest at the G1/S transition, the MTT assay showed inhibition of cell proliferation, and the Transwell assay showed restricted cell invasion. Furthermore, the expression of the p21 protein was increased, the expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) protein decreased, and the expression of the p27 protein was unchanged as shown by Western blot analyses. REGγ plays a critical role in the cell cycle, proliferation and invasion of SW579 cells. The alteration of p21 and PCNA proteins related to the down-regulation of REGγ suggests that p21 and PCNA participate in the process of REGγ regulation of cell cycle progression and cell proliferation. Thus, targeting REGγ has a therapeutic potential in the management of PDTC patients.

Study of the subcellular localization of cell cycle regulator Cks1 and its impact on cancer

La progression dans le cycle cellulaire est contrôlée par de vagues oscillantes de cyclines et des kinases cycline-dépendantes (Cdk). Ces kinases sont régulées positivement par l’association des sous-unités cyclines régulatrices et négativement en se liant aux inhibiteurs de Cdk. Parmi ces derniers, p27 inhibe tous les complexes cycline-Cdk quelle que soit la phase cellulaire et agit en tant que régulateur négatif principal de la prolifération cellulaire dans une variété de cellules et de tissus. Intrinsèquement, p27 phosphorylé est ubiquitiné et dégradé par le complexe SCFSkp2-Cks1. Des études génétiques de la souris, ainsi que des examens cliniques chez l’homme, ont montré que p27 est un important suppresseur de tumeur. Le gène est rarement muté. Cependant, p27 est fréquemment réprimé dans les cancers humains en raison d’une augmentation de l’expression de Skp2 et de Cks1 dans le noyau, ce qui est généralement associée à un mauvais pronostic. La localisation subcellulaire de Cks1 est donc d'une importance primordiale dans le contrôle de la prolifération cellulaire. Les résultats récents de notre laboratoire ont montré une interaction entre Cks1 et les protéines de transport nucléaire importine α1 et β3. Aussi, l’analyse de la séquence primaire de Cks1 a également révélé un signal de localisation nucléaire classique (NLS) à son extrémité C-terminale. Des mutations ont été effectuées sur le NLS suspect pour déterminer si oui ou non l'import nucléaire de Cks1 était contrôlé par cette séquence. Un inhibiteur synthétique de l’importine β a également été utilisé pour étudier l’import de Cks1 dans le noyau. Les résultats indiquent que l’extrémité C-terminale de Cks1 est en effet un NLS puisque les mutations de Cks1 et l'inhibition de l’importine β conduisent, tous deux, à l'accumulation de Cks1 dans le cytoplasme. Ces résultats ont été utiles pour mieux comprendre le mécanisme régulant la localisation de Cks1. Toutefois, des travaux futurs sont nécessaires pour mieux comprendre l'impact de la séquestration cytoplasmique de Cks1 sur le cancer et ainsi espérer aboutir à l'identification de nouvelles cibles pharmacologiques impliqués dans la prolifération cellulaire.

The Mammalian cell cycle: an overview

In recent years, we have witnessed major advances in our understanding of the mammalian cell cycle and how it is regulated. Normal mammalian cellular proliferation is tightly regulated at each phase of the cell cycle by the activation and deactivation of a series of proteins that constitute the cell cycle machinery. This review article describes the various phases of the mammalian cell cycle and focuses on the cell cycle regulatory molecules that act at each stage to ensure normal cellular progression.

The mammalian cell cycle: an overview

In recent years, we have witnessed major advances in our understanding of the mammalian cell cycle and how it is regulated. Normal mammalian cellular proliferation is tightly regulated at each phase of the cell cycle by the activation and deactivation of a series of proteins that constitute the cell cycle machinery. This review article describes the various phases of the mammalian cell cycle and focuses on the cell cycle regulatory molecules that act at each stage to ensure normal cellular progression.

Regulation of cell cycle and stress responses to hydrostatic pressure in fission yeast

We have investigated the cellular responses to hydrostatic pressure by using the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe as a model system. Exposure to sublethal levels of hydrostatic pressure resulted in G2 cell cycle delay. This delay resulted from Cdc2 tyrosine-15 (Y-15) phosphorylation, and it was abrogated by simultaneous disruption of the Cdc2 kinase regulators Cdc25 and Wee1. However, cell cycle delay was independent of the DNA damage, cytokinesis, and cell size checkpoints, suggesting a novel mechanism of Cdc2-Y15 phosphorylation in response to hydrostatic pressure. Spc1/Sty1 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, a conserved member of the eukaryotic stress-activated p38, mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase family, was rapidly activated after pressure stress, and it was required for cell cycle recovery under these conditions, in part through promoting polo kinase (Plo1) phosphorylation on serine 402. Moreover, the Spc1 MAP kinase pathway played a key role in maintaining cell viability under hydrostatic pressure stress through the bZip transcription factor, Atf1. Further analysis revealed that prestressing cells with heat increased barotolerance, suggesting adaptational cross-talk between these stress responses. These findings provide new insight into eukaryotic homeostasis after exposure to pressure stress.

The cell cycle and drug discovery: The promise and the hope

In recent years, there have been major developments in the understanding of the cell cycle. It is now known that normal cellular proliferation is tightly regulated by the activation and deactivation of a series of proteins that constitute the cell cycle machinery. The expression and activity of components of the cell cycle can be altered during the development of a variety of diseases where aberrant proliferation contributes to the pathology of the illness. Apart from yielding a new source of untapped therapeutic targets, it is likely that manipulating the activity of such proteins in diseased states will provide an important route for treating proliferative disorders, and the opportunity to develop a novel class of future medicines.

Arresting developments in the cardiac myocyte cell cycle: Role of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors

Like most other cells in the body, foetal and neonatal cardiac myocytes are able to divide and proliferate. However, the ability of these cells to undergo cell division decreases progressively during development such that adult myocytes are unable to divide. A major problem arising from this inability of adult cardiac myocytes to proliferate is that the mature heart is unable to regenerate new myocardial tissue following severe injury, e.g. infarction, which can lead to compromised cardiac pump function and even death. Studies in proliferating cells have identified a group of genes and proteins that controls cell division. These proteins include cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and CDK inhibitors (CDKIs), which interact with each other to form complexes that are essential for controlling normal cell cycle progression. A variety of other proteins, e.g. the retinoblastoma protein (pRb) and members of the E2F family of transcription factors, also can interact with, and modulate the activities of, these complexes. Despite the major role that these proteins play in other cell types, little was known until recently about their existence and activities in immature (proliferating) or mature (non-proliferating) cardiac myocytes. The reason(s) why cardiac myocytes lose their ability to divide during development remains unknown, but if strategies were developed to understand the mechanisms underlying cardiac myocyte growth, it could open up new avenues for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. In this article, we shall review the function of the cell cycle machinery and outline some of our recent findings pertaining to the involvement of the cell cycle in modulating cardiac myocyte growth and hypertrophy.

Axillary bud development in pineapple nodal segments correlates with changes on cell cycle gene expression, hormone level, and sucrose and glutamate contents

During the process of lateral organ development after plant decapitation, cell division and differentiation occur in a balanced manner initiated by specific signaling, which triggers the reentrance into the cell cycle. Here, we investigated short-term variations in the content of some endogenous signals, such as auxin, cytokinins (Cks), and other mitogenic stimuli (sucrose and glutamate), which are likely correlated with the cell cycle reactivation in the axillary bud primordium of pineapple nodal segments. Transcript levels of cell cycle-associated genes, CycD2;1, and histone H2A were analyzed. Nodal segments containing the quiescent axillary meristem cells were cultivated in vitro during 24 h after the apex removal and de-rooting. From the moment of stem apex and root removal, decapitated nodal segment (DNS) explants showed a lower indol-3-acetic acid (IAA) concentration than control explants, and soon after, an increase of endogenous sucrose and iP-type Cks were detected. The decrease of IAA may be the primary signal for cell cycle control early in G1 phase, leading to the upregulation of CycD2;1 gene in the first h. Later, the iP-type Cks and sucrose could have triggered the progression to S-phase since there was an increase in H2A expression at the eighth h. DNS explants revealed substantial increase in Z-type Cks and glutamate from the 12th h, suggesting that these mitogens could also operate in promoting pineapple cell cycle progression. We emphasize that the use of non-synchronized tissue rather than synchronous cell suspension culture makes it more difficult to interpret the results of a dynamic cell division process. However, pineapple nodal segments cultivated in vitro may serve as an interesting model to shed light on apical dominance release and the reentrance of quiescent axillary meristem cells into the cell cycle.

Gamma-linolenic acid inhibits both tumour cell cycle progression and angiogenesis in the orthotopic C6 glioma model through changes in VEGF, Flt1, ERK1/2, MMP2, cyclin D1, pRb, p53 and p27 protein expression

Background: Gamma-linolenic acid is a known inhibitor of tumour cell proliferation and migration in both in vitro and in vivo conditions. The aim of the present study was to determine the mechanisms by which gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) osmotic pump infusion alters glioma cell proliferation, and whether it affects cell cycle control and angiogenesis in the C6 glioma in vivo. Methods: Established C6 rat gliomas were treated for 14 days with 5 mM GLA in CSF or CSF alone. Tumour size was estimated, microvessel density (MVD) counted and protein and mRNA expression measured by immunohistochemistry, western blotting and RT-PCR. Results: GLA caused a significant decrease in tumour size (75 +/- 8.8%) and reduced MVD by 44 +/- 5.4%. These changes were associated with reduced expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) (71 +/- 16%) and the VEGF receptor Flt1 (57 +/- 5.8%) but not Flk1. Expression of ERK1/2 was also reduced by 27 +/- 7.7% and 31 +/- 8.7% respectively. mRNA expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP2) was reduced by 35 +/- 6.8% and zymography showed MMP2 proteolytic activity was reduced by 32 +/- 8.5%. GLA altered the expression of several proteins involved in cell cycle control. pRb protein expression was decreased (62 +/- 18%) while E2F1 remained unchanged. Cyclin D1 protein expression was increased by 42 +/- 12% in the presence of GLA. The cyclin dependent kinase inhibitors p21 and p27 responded differently to GLA, p27 expression was increased (27 +/- 7.3%) while p21 remained unchanged. The expression of p53 was increased (44 +/- 16%) by GLA. Finally, the BrdU incorporation studies found a significant inhibition (32 +/- 11%) of BrdU incorporation into the tumour in vivo. Conclusion: Overall the findings reported in the present study lend further support to the potential of GLA as an inhibitor of glioma cell proliferation in vivo and show it has direct effects upon cell cycle control and angiogenesis. These effects involve changes in protein expression of VEGF, Flt1, ERK1, ERK2, MMP2, Cyclin D1, pRb, p53 and p27. Combination therapy using drugs with other, complementary targets and GLA could lead to gains in treatment efficacy in this notoriously difficult to treat tumour.

The Mechanism of Oocyte Activation Influences the Cell Cycle-Related Genes Expression During Bovine Preimplantation Development

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Quantitative cell-cycle protein expression in oral cancer assessed by computer-assisted system

The knowledge of cell-cycle control has shown that the capacity of malignant growth is acquired by the stepwise accumulation of defects in specific genes regulating cell growth. Histologic diagnosis might be improved by a quantitative evaluation of more specific diagnosis biomarkers, which could help to precisely identify pre-malignant and malignant oral lesions. The aim of the present study is to evaluate whether computer-based quantitative assessment of p53, PCNA and Ki-67 immunohistochemical expression, could be used clinically to foresee the risk of oral malignant transformation. This retrospective study was carried out in ninety-five oral biopsies, 27 were classified as fibrous inflammatory hyperplasia, 40 as leukoplakia and 28 as oral squamous cell carcinoma. Sixteen out of the 40 leukoplakia were diagnosed as non-dysplastic leukoplakia, the other 24 being dysplastic leukoplakia, of which 50.0% were classified as moderate to severe dysplasia. Comparison of the four groups of oral tissues showed significant rises in p53 and Ki-67 positivity index, which increased steadily in the order benign, pre-malignant, and malignant. In contrast, it was not possible to relate higher PCNA levels with pre-malignant and malignant oral lesions. We therefore conclude that PCNA immunohistochemistry expression is probably an inappropriate marker to identify oral carcinogenesis, whereas joint quantitative evaluation of p53 and Ki-67, appears to be useful as a tumor marker, providing a pre-diagnostic estimate of the potential for cell-cycle deregulation of the oral proliferate status.

The Mechanism of Oocyte Activation Influences the Cell Cycle-Related Genes Expression During Bovine Preimplantation Development

The first cleavage divisions and preimplantation embryonic development are supported by mRNA and proteins synthesized and stored during oogenesis. Thus, mRNA molecules of maternal origin decrease and embryonic development becomes gradually dependent on expression of genetic information derived from the embryonic genome. However, it is still unclear what the role of the sperm cell is during this phase and whether the absence of the sperm cell during the artificial oocyte activation affects subsequent embryonic development. The objective of this study was to determine, in bovine embryos, changes in cell cycle-associated transcript levels (cyclin A, cyclin B, cyclin E, CDC2, CDK2, and CDK4) after oocyte activation in the presence or absence of the sperm cell. To evaluate that, in vitro-produced (IVP) and parthenogenetically activated (PA) embryos (2-4 cells (2-4C), 8-16 cells (8-16C) and blastocysts) were evaluated by real-time PCR. There was no difference in cleavage and blastocyst rates between IVP and PA groups. Transcript level was higher in oocytes than in IVP and PA embryos. Cleaved PA embryos showed higher expression of cyclin A, cyclin B, cyclin E, and CDK2 and lower expression of CDC2 when compared with that from the IVP group. At the time of activation, all transcripts were expressed less in PA than in IVP embryos, whereas at the blastocyst stage, almost all genes were expressed at a higher level in the PA group. These results suggest that in both groups there is an initial consumption of these transcripts in the early stages of embryonic development. Furthermore, 8-16C embryos seem to synthesize more cell cycle-related genes than 2-4C embryos. However, in PA embryos, activation of the cell cycle genes seems to occur after the 8- to 16-cell stage, suggesting a failure in the activation process.