Análisis de la deformación de rotura en el ensayo de tracción en probetas cilíndricas de acero perlítico

El ensayo de tracción permite obtener la curva tensión-deformación hasta el instante de carga máxima, sin embargo, a partir de ese momento el análisis de las tensiones y de las deformaciones resulta complicado. Conocer el comportamiento del material a partir del instante de carga máxima resulta fundamental para diseñar estrategias que mejoren la segundad estructural. Este trabajo presenta los resultados de una campaña experimental de ensayos de tracción sobre acero perlítico en la que se han estudiado sus deformaciones de rotura así como sus superficies de fractura, todo ello en probetas cilindricas con diferentes diámetros. Esta campaña ha sido acompañada de simulaciones numéricas con el fin de analizar el comportamiento del material en el interior de la sección. Adicionalmente, se han analizado las superficies de fractura de las probetas y se ha observado una relación no proporcional entre el tamaño de las probetas y el tamaño de la zona interna atribuida al crecimiento de poros. Esta relación no proporcional sugiere que dicha zona actuaría como un concentrador de tensiones, de forma similar a una fisura, y estaría afectado por el efecto de la tnaxialidad de las tensiones en la zona de rotura o

Influencia de la radiación UV en las propiedades mecánicas y en el comportamiento en fractura de un polimero artificial bioinspirado en la seda de araña

En el presente trabajo se estudia la influencia de la radiación UV sobre las propiedades mecánicas y las superficies de fractura de un polímero artificial bioinspirado en la seda de araña. Las fibras de seda de araña constituyen un material enormemente atractivo ya que su elevada resistencia y deformabilidad lo convierten en el material con mayor trabajo hasta rotura de los conocidos hasta el momento. Además se ha encontrado que posee una elevada biocompatibilidad y un comportamiento biodegradable. Debido a estas excelentes propiedades se han dedicado importantes esfuerzos a intentar producir fibras inspiradas en la seda de araña. Fruto de estos esfuerzos es el polímero artificial estudiado en este trabajo. Dicho polímero presenta una secuencia de aminoácidos inspirada en la spidroína 1, que es una de las dos proteínas que conforman la seda de araña natural. Uno de los factores más perjudiciales para los polímeros es la radiación ultravioleta (UV), de presencia ubicua en aplicaciones al aire libre, ya que puede provocar la modificación de sus enlaces covalentes y, como consecuencia, modificar sus propiedades mecánicas. Para evaluar el efecto de la radiación UV sobre el material bioinspirado se ha estudiado el comportamiento a tracción simple de fibras sometidas a diferentes tiempos de irradiación con luz UV de longitud de onda de 254 nm. Se ha observado que la radiación UV de 254 nm modifica considerablemente las propiedades mecánicas de este material a tiempos de exposición elevados (a partir de 3 días de irradiación). Además se ha estudiado el comportamiento a fractura de este material cuando es irradiado con luz UV. Se ha observado que a medida que aumenta el tiempo de irradiación las superficies de fractura comienzan a ser cada vez más planas, obteniéndose un aspecto extremadamente especular para muestras irradiadas durante 16 días

Usos médicos de la seda

Las excelentes propiedades de este biomaterial se conocen desde antaño. Se están desarrollando ahora nuevas aplicaciones en la reparación de tejidos y en farmacología

Correlation Between Processing Conditions, Microstructure and Mechanical Behavior in Regenerated Silkworm Silk Fibers

Regenerated silkworm fibers spun through a wet-spinning process followed by an immersion postspinning drawing step show a work to fracture comparable with that of natural silkworm silk fibers in a wide range of spinning conditions. The mechanical behavior and microstructure of these high performance fibers have been characterized, and compared with those fibers produced through conventional spinning conditions. The comparison reveals that both sets of fibers share a common semicrystalline microstructure, but significant differences are apparent in the amorphous region. Besides, high performance fibers show a ground state and the possibility of tuning their tensile behavior. These properties are characteristic of spider silk and not of natural silkworm silk, despite both regenerated and natural silkworm silk share a common composition different from that of spider silk.

Synchrotron strain scanning for residual stress measurement in cold-drawn steel rods

Cold-drawn steel rods and wires retain significant residual stresses as a consequence of the manufacturing process. These residual stresses are known to be detrimental for the mechanical properties of the wires and their durability in aggressive environments. Steel makers are aware of the problem and have developed post-drawing processes to try and reduce the residual stresses on the wires. The present authors have studied this problem for a number of years and have performed a detailed characterization of the residual stress state inside cold-drawn rods, including both experimental and numerical techniques. High-energy synchrotron sources have been particularly useful for this research. The results have shown how residual stresses evolve as a consequence of cold-drawing and how they change with subsequent post-drawing treatments. The authors have been able to measure for the first time a complete residual strain profile along the diameter in both phases (ferrite and cementite) of a cold-drawn steel rod.

Influence of coiling on the stress relaxation of prestressing steel wires

The possible deleterious effects of coiling and long-term storage of coiled wires on the stress relaxation behaviour of prestressing steel wires has been checked by means of experimental work and a simple analytical model. The results show that if the requirements of standards are fulfilled (minimum coiling diameters), these effects can be neglected. However, some other factors, such as previous residual stresses, long-term storage or storage at high temperatures, can trigger or emphasize this damage to the material. In the authors' opinion, checking the final curvature of the wires after uncoiling prior to prestressing, as required in some standards, is to be recommended.

Influencia de las condiciones de almacenamiento sobre la relajación de aceros de pretensado = Influence of storage conditions on prestressing steel relaxation losses

La pérdida de tensión por relajación en las armaduras activas afecta de forma importante a las estructuras de hormigón pretensado. Por ello se realizan ensayos de relajación de los alambres y cordones de pretensado tras su fabricación. Después, el material es enrollado y almacenado durante periodos que en ocasiones pueden superar el año de duración. Generalmente se desprecia la influencia que estas operaciones posteriores a la fabricación pueden tener sobre el material. Sin embargo, diversos fabricantes y suministradores han constatado experimentalmente que, en ocasiones, el material almacenado durante un periodo prolongado presenta pérdidas de relajación mayores que inmediatamente tras su fabricación. En este trabajo se realizan ensayos de laboratorio para comprobar la influencia que el radio de enrollamiento y el periodo de almacenamiento tienen sobre las pérdidas de relajación. También se propone un modelo analítico que permite predecir de manera razonablemente aproximada el valor del ensayo de relajación sobre un alambre sometido a un enrollamiento prolongado. Este modelo explica la evolución del perfil de tensiones durante el proceso de enrollamiento-almacenamiento-desenrollamiento, así como la influencia de las tensiones residuales

Thermo-Mechanical Treatment Effects on Stress Relaxation and Hydrogen Embrittlement of Cold-Drawn Eutectoid Steels

The effects of the temperature and stretching levels used in the stress-relieving treatment of cold-drawn eutectoid steel wires are evaluated with the aim of improving the stress relaxation behavior and the resistance to hydrogen embrittlement. Five industrial treatments are studied, combining three temperatures (330, 400, and 460 °C) and three stretching levels (38, 50 and 64% of the rupture load). The change of the residual stress produced by the treatments is taken into consideration to account for the results. Surface residual stresses allow us to explain the time to failure in standard hydrogen embrittlement tests

Behaviour of steel prestressing wires under extreme conditions of strain rate and temperature

The purpose of this paper is to provide information on the behaviour of steel prestressing wires under likely conditions that could be expected during a fire or impact loads. Four loadings were investigated: a) the influence of strain rate – from 10–3 to 600 s–1 – at room temperature, b) the influence of temperature – from 24 to 600 °C – at low strain rate, c) the influence of the joint effect of strain rate and temperature, and d) damage after three plausible fire scenarios. At room temperature it was found that using “static” values is a safe option. At high temperatures our results are in agreement with design codes. Regarding the joint effect of temperature and strain rate, mechanical properties decrease with increasing temperature, although for a given temperature, yield stress and tensile strength increase with strain rate. The data provided can be used profitably to model the mechanical behaviour of steel wires under different scenarios.

Influence of coiling in stress relaxation of prestressing steel wires

The possible deleterious effects of coiling and long-time storage of coiled wires on the stress relaxation behaviour of prestressing steel wires has been checked by means of experimental work and a simple analytical model. The results show that if the requirements of Standards are fulfilled (minimum coiling diameters) these effects can be neglected. However, some other factors like previous residual stresses, long-time storage or storage at high temperatures, can trigger or emphasise this damage to the material. In the authors’ opinion it is recommendable to control the final curvature of the wires after uncoiling prior to prestressing, as required in some Standards.

Sequential origin in the high performance properties of spider dragline silk

Major ampullate (MA) dragline silk supports spider orb webs, combining strength and extensibility in the toughest biomaterial. MA silk evolved ~376 MYA and identifying how evolutionary changes in proteins influenced silk mechanics is crucial for biomimetics, but is hindered by high spinning plasticity. We use supercontraction to remove that variation and characterize MA silk across the spider phylogeny. We show that mechanical performance is conserved within, but divergent among, major lineages, evolving in correlation with discrete changes in proteins. Early MA silk tensile strength improved rapidly with the origin of GGX amino acid motifs and increased repetitiveness. Tensile strength then maximized in basal entelegyne spiders, ~230 MYA. Toughness subsequently improved through increased extensibility within orb spiders, coupled with the origin of a novel protein (MaSp2). Key changes in MA silk proteins therefore correlate with the sequential evolution high performance orb spider silk and could aid design of biomimetic fibers.

Minor ampullate silks from Nephila and Argiope spiders: tensile properties and microstructural characterization

The mechanical behavior and microstructure of minor ampullate gland silk (miS) of two orb-web spinning species, Argiope trifasciata and Nephila inaurata, were extensively characterized, enabling detailed comparison with other silks. The similarities and differences exhibited by miS when compared with the intensively studied major ampullate gland silk (MAS) and silkworm (Bombyx mori) silk offer a genuine opportunity for testing some of the hypotheses proposed to correlate microstructure and tensile properties in silk. In this work, we show that miSs of different species show similar properties, even when fibers spun by spiders that diverged over 100 million years are compared. The tensile properties of miS are comparable to those of MAS when tested in air, significantly in terms of work to fracture, but differ considerably when tested in water. In particular, miS does not show a supercontraction effect and an associated ground state. In this regard, the behavior of miS in water is similar to that of B. mori silk, and it is shown that the initial elastic modulus of both fibers can be explained using a common model. Intriguingly, the microstructural parameters measured in miS are comparable to those of MAS and considerably different from those found in B. mori. This fact suggests that some critical microstructural information is still missing in our description of silks, and our results suggest that the hydrophilicity of the lateral groups or the large scale organization of the sequences might be routes worth exploring.

Failure analysis of prestressed anchor bars

Three broken steel bars from a sewed crack in a dam are reported. The inspection of the fracture surfaces of the prestressed bars suggests that fractures were triggered by small cracks and by the inherent brittleness of the bars, as fracture toughness was about 40 MPa m1/2. The analysis of the failures shows that the usual design requirements for prestressing bars fail to warn against brittle failures if some damage exists. Some recommendations, based on the concept of damage tolerance, are suggested to avoid similar unfortunate incidents.

The role of residual stresses in the performance and durability of prestressing steel wires

Residual stresses developed during wire drawing influence the mechanical behavior and durability of steel wires used for prestressed concrete structures, particularly the shape of the stress–strain curve, stress relaxation losses, fatigue life, and environmental cracking susceptibility. The availability of general purpose finite element analysis tools and powerful diffraction techniques (X-rays and neutrons) has made it possible to predict and measure accurately residual stress fields in cold-drawn steel wires. Work carried out in this field in the past decade, shows the prospects and limitations of residual stress measurement, how the stress relaxation losses and environmentally-assisted cracking are correlated with the profile of residual stresses and how the performance of steel wires can be improved by modifying such a stress profile

Simulación del proceso de rotura por tracción de alambres de acero perlítico con un modelo de fisura cohesiva

La fractura de metales dúctiles como el acero suele explicarse a partir de la hipótesis de nucleación, crecimiento y coalescencia de microhuecos. A partir de esta teoría, se han desarrollado diversos modelos numéricos, entre los que el modelo de Gurson y sus variantes son los más extendidos. Dichos modelos reproducen matemáticamente el fenómeno físico de crecimiento de huecos resultando en un desarrollo progresivo del daño en el interior del material durante un ensayo de tracción. En estos modelos, el daño comienza a desarrollarse en fases muy tempranas del ensayo, incluso anteriores a la carga máxima. Ensayos realizados por los autores parecen indicar, sin embargo, que en el caso de barras de acero eutéctico empleado en la fabricación de alambres de pretensado, el daño originado en el interior del material como consecuencia del crecimiento de microhuecos sólo es apreciable en un estado muy avanzado del ensayo, momentos antes de producirse la rotura. Además, desde hace décadas se conoce que la triaxialidad de tensiones tiene una fuerte influencia sobre la rotura de los materiales. En este trabajo se presenta un modelo de rotura para elementos de acero sometidos a tracción, basado en un comportamiento cohesivo del material y que contempla el valor de la triaxialidad de tensiones, diferente en cada punto de la sección crítica de rotura. The fracture of ductile materials, such as steel, is usually explained with the theory of nucleation, growth and coalescence of microvoids. Based on this theory, many numerical models have been developed, with a special mention to Gurson-type models. These models simulate mathematically the physical growth of microvoids, leading to a progressive development of the internal damage that takes place during a tensile test. In these models, the damage starts to develop in very early stages of the test. Tests carried out by the authors seem to point out that, in the case of eutectoid steel bars used for manufacturing prestressing steel wires, the internal damage that takes place as a result of the growth of microvoids is only noticeable in a very advanced state of the test. In addition to this, it is known that the stress triaxiality has a strong influence over the fracture of ductile materials. This work presents a fracture model for steel specimens in a tensile test, based on a cohesive behaviour and taking into account the effect of stress triaxiality, which is different in every point of the fracture plane.