A Multi-scale Model for Copper Dishing in Chemical-Mechanical Polishing

The present success in the manufacture of multi-layer interconnects in ultra-large-scale integration is largely due to the acceptable planarization capabilities of the chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) process. In the past decade, copper has emerged as the preferred interconnect material. The greatest challenge in Cu CMP at present is the control of wafer surface non-uniformity at various scales. As the size of a wafer has increased to 300 mm, the wafer-level non-uniformity has assumed critical importance. Moreover, the pattern geometry in each die has become quite complex due to a wide range of feature sizes and multi-level structures. Therefore, it is important to develop a non-uniformity model that integrates wafer-, die- and feature-level variations into a unified, multi-scale dielectric erosion and Cu dishing model. In this paper, a systematic way of characterizing and modeling dishing in the single-step Cu CMP process is presented. The possible causes of dishing at each scale are identified in terms of several geometric and process parameters. The feature-scale pressure calculation based on the step-height at each polishing stage is introduced. The dishing model is based on pad elastic deformation and the evolving pattern geometry, and is integrated with the wafer- and die-level variations. Experimental and analytical means of determining the model parameters are outlined and the model is validated by polishing experiments on patterned wafers. Finally, practical approaches for minimizing Cu dishing are suggested.

A Multi-scale Model for Copper Dishing in Chemical-Mechanical Polishing

The present success in the manufacture of multi-layer interconnects in ultra-large-scale integration is largely due to the acceptable planarization capabilities of the chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) process. In the past decade, copper has emerged as the preferred interconnect material. The greatest challenge in Cu CMP at present is the control of wafer surface non-uniformity at various scales. As the size of a wafer has increased to 300 mm, the wafer-level non-uniformity has assumed critical importance. Moreover, the pattern geometry in each die has become quite complex due to a wide range of feature sizes and multi-level structures. Therefore, it is important to develop a non-uniformity model that integrates wafer-, die- and feature-level variations into a unified, multi-scale dielectric erosion and Cu dishing model. In this paper, a systematic way of characterizing and modeling dishing in the single-step Cu CMP process is presented. The possible causes of dishing at each scale are identified in terms of several geometric and process parameters. The feature-scale pressure calculation based on the step-height at each polishing stage is introduced. The dishing model is based on pad elastic deformation and the evolving pattern geometry, and is integrated with the wafer- and die-level variations. Experimental and analytical means of determining the model parameters are outlined and the model is validated by polishing experiments on patterned wafers. Finally, practical approaches for minimizing Cu dishing are suggested.

Problemas de coordinación motriz y resignación aprendida en Educación Física escolar.

Analizar la competencia motriz de los escolares y detectar aquéllos con baja competencia para relacionar sus rendimientos con variables motivacionales. Construir un instrumento de observación de la competencia motriz en las sesiones de Educación Física. 962 escolares de entre 4 y 12 años de edad de centros públicos y privados de las Comunidades Autónomas de Madrid y de Valencia. Se aplican diferentes instrumentos de detección de problemas motrices y de evaluación de variables motivacionales. Se realiza un análisis factorial para la validación de constructo de los instrumentos. Se realizan análisis de fiabilidad empleando el coeficiente alpha de Crombach y se calculan los índices de homogeneidad de cada ítem. Se llevan a cabo contrastes de hipótesis para los diferentes grupos muestrales según edad, género y dominancia lateral, empleando análisis multivariantes de la varianza y pruebas no paramétricas como el test U de Mann-Whitney y el test H de Kruskal-Wallis. Se calculan coeficientes de correlación ordinal entre las puntuaciones del test ABC y las diferentes variables motivacionales. Escala de Observación de la Competencia Motriz Infantil (ECOMI). Escala de problemas de conducta relacionados con los PECM de Henderson y Sugden. Test de Motivación de Logro en Educación Física de Nishida (AMPET). Test de Motivación de Logro en Educación Física (versión reducida del AMPET de Nishida) (MEF). Cuestionario de Competencia Motriz percibida en la infancia (CMP). Batería Movement ABC de Henderson y Sudgen. Se observa que no se puede afirmar que los sujetos con una baja competencia motriz deban manifestar siempre sentimientos de ansiedad y de baja percepción de su competencia motriz. Se observa que en las edades más tempranas (4-6 años), existe un menor nivel de competencia motriz percibida, lo que no se detecta en edades posteriores. Se constata la existencia de diferencias de género, favorables a los niños, en las tareas de competencia motriz general y control motor y, en éste último caso, éstas se perciben a partir de los siete años. Se confirma lo acertado del profesorado en la detección, a través de la observación, de escolares con problemas de coordinación y conductas negativas asociadas.

Análisis comparativo de diferentes procedimientos de detección de los problemas evolutivos de coordinación motriz en los escolares de 4 a 6 años.

Analizar la eficacia en el empleo de dos instrumentos de medición motriz; analizar las relaciones existentes entre los resultados obtenidos en la detección de los problemas evolutivos de coordinación motriz (PECM); analizar la precisión en la detección de los alumnos,-as con PECM mediante el empleo de ECOMI; analizar las relaciones existentes entre la observacion realizada por los profesores y los datos obtenidos por los instrumentos; validar el Test de Motricidad Global Stay in Step con población escolar española; analizar los resultados obtenidos en los diferentes tests motores y los obtenidos con el Cuestionario de Competencia Motriz Percibida para la Infancia y el Cuestionario de Autoconcepto Infantil; analizar las relaciones existentes entre los cuestionarios anteriores y su relación con el resto de las medidas empleadas en esta investigación; proponer el desarrollo y construcción de un instrumento de medición y detección de la baja competencia motriz en las edades de la educación primaria. Planteamiento de hipótesis. 291 sujetos de edades comprendidas entre los 4 y los 7 años. De ellos el 49,8 por cien (145 sujetos) son niñas y el 50,2 por cien (146 sujetos) son niños. La medición se realizó de forma individual o grupal, dependiendo del instrumento empleado y de las normas establecidas por el mismo, en el gimnasio, patio del colegio o zona especialmente dedicada para esta actividad. Un grupo de estudiantes de cuarto y quinto de la Licenciatura de Ciencias de la Actividad Física del INEF de Madrid aplicaron los instrumentos. Los instrumentos empleados fueron: Batería Motriz Movement ABC; Test de Motricidad Global Stay in Step; Escala de Observación de la competencia Motriz (ECOMI); Escala de problemas asociados a la Competencia Motriz; Cuestionario de Competencia Motriz Percibida Infantil; Escala de percepción del autoconcepto infantil (PAI). Se comentan los resultados parciales de los diferentes instrumentos empleados. Con ECOMI, no se encuentran diferencias de género en las tareas de competencia motriz general y control motor en edades tempranas. Muestra una buena calidad psicométrica en lo que se refiere a la fiabilidad con un reducido número de items, que lo hacen fácilmente aplicable en el contexto escolar; en la Escala de Observación de Conductas Asociadas, la fiabilidad de sus factores puede considerarse alta. En relación al género, los profesores perciben a los alumnos y alumnas equilibrados en cuanto a pasividad, pero sí manifiestan diferencias en relación con la impulsividad, siendo considerados los niños más impulsivos; la Percepción del Autoconcepto Infantil (PAI) muestra una fiabilidad aceptable, aunque el análisis de items parece indicar que podría ser mayor retirando o modificando alguno de ellos; en cuanto al Cuestionario de Competencia Motriz Percibida en la Infancia (CMP), se demuestra que reune las condiciones necesarias para poder ser empleado como un instrumento de evaluación de la percepción de competencia motriz de los escolares de 4 a 6 años. Su consistencia interna se puede considerar elevada. Aunque las relaciones de la Competencia Motriz Percibida no son descollantes sí que llama la atención su consistencia en la práctica totalidad de las medidas de competencia manifiesta que se han aplicado. El análisis de los resultados obtenidos en la Batería Motriz Movement ABC nos ha mostrado que existen diferencias entre niños y niñas en las tareas que reclamaban el lanzamiento preciso o en aquellas en las que se solicitaba mantener el equilibrio o utilizar las manos con destreza; el Test de Evaluación de la Motricidad Global Stay in Step, parece mostrar relaciones muy consistentes con todas las demás pruebas, tanto del ABC como del mismo SS. Estas relaciones aparecen también reflejadas al analizarlas respecto de los factores de ECOMI. Es interesante destacar la efectividad del CMPI, que presenta unas propiedas psicométricas muy relevantes. Se puede concluir que ambos instrumentos empleados poseen características que permiten afirmar o confirmar su utilidad como medio de detectar dificultades de movimiento en las edades infantiles, en concreto entre los 4 y 6 años. El pragmatismo hace que se recomiende el empleo de SS combinado con la Escala ECOMI por parte del profesorado de educación infantil o de educación física. Asimismo, se confirma la utilidad del Cuestionario CMPI para poder conocer los pensamientos y percepciones que los más pequeños tienen sobre su competencia motriz. Se propone la necesaria indagación sobre el desarrollo y construción de un instrumento de medición motriz que permita abarcar más facetas de la competencia motriz infantil.

El aprendizaje de la ciudadan??a europea

Los autores forman parte del grupo de investigaci??n GIOES. Departamento de Did??ctica e investigaci??n Educativa. Facultad de Educaci??n de la Universidad de La Laguna (Santa Cruz de Tenerife).

In vitro fermentation by human gut bacteria of proteolytically digested caseinomacropeptide nonenzymatically glycosylated with prebiotic carbohydrates

The in vitro fermentation selectivity of hydrolyzed caseinomacropeptide (CMP) glycosylated, via Maillard reaction (MR), with lactulose, galacto-oligosaccharides from lactose (GOSLa), and galacto-oligosaccharides from lactulose (GOSLu) was evaluated, using pH-controlled small-scale batch cultures at 37 °C under anaerobic conditions with human feces. After 10 and 24 h of fermentation, neoglyconjugates exerted a bifidogenic activity, similar to those of the corresponding prebiotic carbohydrates. No significant differences were found in Bacteroides, Lactobacillus�Enterococcus, Clostridium histolyticum subgroup, Atopobium and Clostridium coccoides�Eubacterium rectale populations. Concentrations of lactic acid and short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) produced during the fermentation of prebiotic carbohydrates were similar to those produced for their respective neoglycoconjugates at both fermentation times. These findings, joined with the functional properties attributed to CMP, could open up new applications of MR products involving prebiotics as novel multiple-functional ingredients with potential beneficial effects on human health.

Production of acid whey hydrolysates applying an integrative process: effect of calcium on process performance

High ionic calcium concentration and the absence of caseinmacropeptides (CMP) in acid whey could influence the production of angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory hydrolysate and its bioactivity through the application of the integrative process. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to produce a hydrolysate from acid whey applying the integrative process. Process performance was evaluated based on protein adsorption capacity and conversion in relation to ACE-inhibitory activity (ACEi%) and ionic calcium concentration. Hydrolysates with high potency of their biological activity were produced (IC50 = 206-353 μg mL-1). High ionic calcium concentration in acid whey contributed to ACE-inhibitory activity. However, low β-lactoglobulin adsorption and conversion was observed. Optimisation of the resin volume increased the adsorption of β-lactoglobulin significantly but with lower selectivity. The changes in conversion value were not significant even at higher concentration of enzyme. Several ACE inhibitors derived from β-lactoglobulin that were identified before in sweet whey hydrolysates such as, IIAEKT, IIAE, IVTQ, LIVTQ, LIVTQT, LDAQ and LIVT were found. New peptides such as, SNICNI and ECCHGD derived from α-lactalbumin and BSA respectively were identified.

Improved information about the vertical location and extent of monolayer clouds from POLDER3 measurements in the oxygen A-band

This paper describes new advances in the exploitation of oxygen A-band measurements from POLDER3 sensor onboard PARASOL, satellite platform within the A-Train. These developments result from not only an account of the dependence of POLDER oxygen parameters to cloud optical thickness τ and to the scene's geometrical conditions but also, and more importantly, from the finer understanding of the sensitivity of these parameters to cloud vertical extent. This sensitivity is made possible thanks to the multidirectional character of POLDER measurements. In the case of monolayer clouds that represent most of cloudy conditions, new oxygen parameters are obtained and calibrated from POLDER3 data colocalized with the measurements of the two active sensors of the A-Train: CALIOP/CALIPSO and CPR/CloudSat. From a parameterization that is (μs, τ) dependent, with μs the cosine of the solar zenith angle, a cloud top oxygen pressure (CTOP) and a cloud middle oxygen pressure (CMOP) are obtained, which are estimates of actual cloud top and middle pressures (CTP and CMP). Performances of CTOP and CMOP are presented by class of clouds following the ISCCP classification. In 2008, the coefficient of the correlation between CMOP and CMP is 0.81 for cirrostratus, 0.79 for stratocumulus, 0.75 for deep convective clouds. The coefficient of the correlation between CTOP and CTP is 0.75, 0.73, and 0.79 for the same cloud types. The score obtained by CTOP, defined as the confidence in the retrieval for a particular range of inferred value and for a given error, is higher than the one of MODIS CTP estimate. Scores of CTOP are the highest for bin value of CTP superior in numbers. For liquid (ice) clouds and an error of 30 hPa (50 hPa), the score of CTOP reaches 50% (70%). From the difference between CTOP and CMOP, a first estimate of the cloud vertical extent h is possible. A second estimate of h comes from the correlation between the angular standard deviation of POLDER oxygen pressure σPO2 and the cloud vertical extent. This correlation is studied in detail in the case of liquid clouds. It is shown to be spatially and temporally robust, except for clouds above land during winter months. The analysis of the correlation's dependence on the scene's characteristics leads to a parameterization providing h from σPO2. For liquid water clouds above ocean in 2008, the mean difference between the actual cloud vertical extent and the one retrieved from σPO2 (from the pressure difference) is 5 m (−12 m). The standard deviation of the mean difference is close to 1000 m for the two methods. POLDER estimates of the cloud geometrical thickness obtain a global score of 50% confidence for a relative error of 20% (40%) of the estimate for ice (liquid) clouds over ocean. These results need to be validated outside of the CALIPSO/CloudSat track.

Controle de espécies indesejáveis em pastagem nativa

O experimento foi desenvolvido em uma área de pastagem nativa representativa da transição entre a Serra do Sudeste e a Depressão Central do RS. Foram testados os efeitos de diferentes métodos de controle de plantas indesejáveis e adubação, sobre a produção de forragem, dinâmica da vegetação e freqüência das espécies presentes na pastagem. Na primeira etapa avaliou-se o efeito inicial (até 60 dias após aplicação) dos tratamentos: T1 – sem controle (SC), T2 – controle mecânico (roçada de primavera, CMP) e T3 – controle químico (Picloram + 2,4-D, na dosagem de 5 L/ha, CQT), os quais foram arranjados num delineamento em blocos ao acaso, com quatro repetições. Aos 60 dias pós-aplicação dos tratamentos, a eficiência de controle das espécies indesejáveis em termos de participação na matéria seca foi de 100% para o CQ e 44,5% para o CMP quando comparados ao SC. Quando a eficiência foi calculada em termos de freqüência de ocorrência, verificou-se que o tratamento CM não foi eficiente no controle do alecrim no estrato inferior e de caraguatá no estrato superior, os quais aumentaram sua freqüência. Na segunda etapa, incluiu-se o tratamento de roçada de outono (CMO) e adubação ou não de cada tratamento e a avaliação estendeu-se por um ano. O delineamento continuou em blocos, com quatro tratamentos (SC, CMP, CMO e CQT) e as parcelas subdivididas em adubado e não adubado. O CQT proporcionou controle total das espécies indesejáveis, mas deprimiu inicialmente as leguminosas (principalmente Desmodium incanum), cuja participação na massa de forragem foi substituída por gramíneas. O CMO revelou-se mais eficiente que o CMP no controle de espécies indesejáveis apesar deste ter sido aplicado duas vezes. A adubação não afetou a resposta aos métodos de controle em nenhuma das variáveis analisadas, mas propiciou maior massa total e de gramíneas no outono, primavera e verão. As espécies indesejáveis não alteraram sua freqüência em função da adubação (em média 8,2%), mas Trifolium polymorphum foi favorecido, independente dos tratamentos de controle.

Voltammetric determination of L-dopa using an electrode modified with trinuclear ruthenium ammine complex (Ru-red) supported on Y-type zeolite

The L-dopa is the immediate precursor of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Unlike dopamine, L-dopa easily enters the central nervous system and is used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. A sensitive and selective method is presented for the voltammetric determination of L-dopa in pharmaceutical formulations using a carbon paste electrode modified with trinuclear ruthenium ammine complex [(NH3)(5)Ru-III-O-Ru-IV(NH3)(4)-O-Ru-III(NH3)(5)](6+) (Ru-red) incorporated in NaY zeolite. The parameters which influence on the electrode response (paste composition, potential scan rate, pH and interference) were also investigated. The optimum conditions were found to an electrode composition (m/m) of 25% zeolite containing 6.7% Ru, 50% graphite and 25% mineral oil in acetate buffer at pH 4.8. Voltammetric peak currents showed a linear response for L-dopa concentration in the range between 1.2 x 10(-4) and 1.0 x 10(-2) Mol l(-1) (r = 0.9988) with a detection limit of 8.5 x 10(-5) mol l(-1). The variation coefficient for a 1.0 x 10(-3) mol l(-1) L-dopa (n = 10) was 5.5%. The results obtained for L-dopa in pharmaceutical formulations (tablet) was in agreement with compared official method. In conclusion, this study has illustrated that the proposed electrode modified with Ru-red incorporated zeolite is suitable valuable for selective measurements of L-dopa. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Geologia, Geocronologia, Geoquímica e Petrogênese das Rochas Ígneas Cretácicas da Província Magmática do Cabo e suas Relações com as Unidades Sedimentares da Bacia de Pernambuco (NE do Brasil)

The area studied forms a thin NNE-directed belt situated south of Recife town (Pernambuco state), northeastern Brazil. Geologically, it comprises the Pernambuco Basin (PB), which is limited by the Pernambuco Lineament to the north, the Maragogi high to the south and the Pernambuco Alagoas massif to the west, all of them with Precambrian age. This thesis reports the results obtained for the Cabo Magmatic Province (CMP), aiming the characterization of the geology, stratigraphy, geochronology, geochemistry and petrogenesis of the Cretaceous igneous rocks presented in the PB. The PB is composed of the Cabo Formation (rift phase) at the base (polymictic conglomerates, sandstones, shales), an intermediate unit, the Estiva Formation (marbles and argillites), and, at the top, the Algodoais Formation (monomictic conglomerates, sandstones, shales). The CMP is represented by trachytes, rhyolites, pyroclastics (ignimbrites), basalts / trachy-andesites, monzonites and alkali-feldspar granite, which occur as dykes, flows, sills, laccoliths and plugs. Field observations and well descriptions show that the majority of the magmatic rocks have intrusive contacts with the Cabo Formation, although some occurrences are also suggestive of synchronism between volcanism and siliciclastic sedimentation. 40Ar/39Ar and zircon fission tracks for the magmatic rocks indicate an average age of 102 r 1 Ma for the CMP. This age represents an expressive event in the province and is detected in all igneous dated materials. It is considered as a minimum age (Albian) for the magmatic episode and the peak of the rift phase in the PB. The 40Ar/39Ar dates are about 10-14 Ma younger than published palynologic ages for this basin. Geochemically, the CMP may be divided in two major groups; i) a transitional to alkaline suite, constituted by basalts to trachy-andesites (types with fine-grained textures and phenocrysts of sanidine and plagioclase), trachytes (porphyrytic texture, with phenocrysts of sanidine and plagioclase) and monzonites; ii) a alkaline suite, highly fractionated, acidic volcano-plutonic association, formed by four subtypes (pyroclastic flows ignimbrites, fine-to medium-grained rhyolites, a high level granite, and later rhyolites). These four types are distinguished essentially by field aspects and petrographic and textural features. Compatible versus incompatible trace element concentrations and geochemical modeling based on both major and trace elements suggest the evolution through low pressure fractional crystallization for trachytes and other acidic rocks, whereas basalts / trachy-andesites and monzonites evolved by partial melting from a mantle source. Sr and Nd isotopes reveal two distinct sources for the rocks of the CMP. Concerning the acidic ones, the high initial Sr ratios (ISr = 0.7064-1.2295) and the negative HNd (-0.43 to -3.67) indicate a crustal source with mesoproterozoic model ages (TDM from 0.92 to 1.04 Ga). On the other hand, the basic to intermediate rocks have low ISr (0.7031-0.7042) and positive HNd (+1.28 to +1.98), which requires the depleted mantle as the most probable source; their model ages are in the range 0.61-0.66 Ga. However, the light rare earth enrichment of these rocks and partial melting modeling point to an incompatible-enriched lherzolitic mantle with very low quantity of garnet (1-3%). This apparent difference between geochemical and Nd isotopes may be resolved by assuming that the metasomatizing agent did not obliterate the original isotopic characteristics of the magmas. A 2 to 5% partial melting of this mantle at approximately 14 kbar and 1269oC account very well the basalts and trachy-andesites studied. By using these pressure and temperatures estimates for the generation of the basaltic to trachy-andesitic magma, it is determined a lithospheric stretching (E) of 2.5. This E value is an appropriated estimate for the sub-crustal stretching (astenospheric or the base of the lithosphere?) region under the Pernambuco Basin, the crustal stretching probably being lower. The integration of all data obtained in this thesis permits to interpret the magmatic evolution of the PB as follows; 1st) the partial melting of a garnet-bearing lherzolite generates incompatible-enriched basaltic, trachy-andesitic and monzonitic magmas; 2nd) the underplating of these basaltic magmas at the base of the continental crust triggers the partial melting of this crust, and thus originating the acidic magmas; 3rd) concomitantly with the previous stage, trachytic magmas were produced by fractionation from a monzonitic to trachy-andesitic liquid; 4th) the emplacement of the several magmas in superficial (e.g. flows) or sub-superficial (e.g. dykes, sills, domes, laccoliths) depths was almost synchronically, at about 102 r 1 Ma, and usually crosscutting the sedimentary rocks of the Cabo Formation. The presence of garnet in the lherzolitic mantle does not agree with pressures of about 14 kbar for the generation of the basaltic magma, as calculated based on chemical parameters. This can be resolved by admitting the astenospheric uplifting under the rift, which would place deep and hot material (mantle plume?) at sub-crustal depths. The generation of the magmas and their subsequent emplacement would be coupled with the crustal rifting of the PB, the border (NNE-SSW directed) and transfer (NW-SE directed) faults serving as conduits for the magma emplacement. Based on the E parameter and the integration of 40Ar/39Ar and palynologic data it is interpreted a maximum duration of 10-14 Ma for the rift phase (Cabo Formation clastic sedimentation and basic to acidic magmatism) of the PB

Desigualdade de indicadores de mortalidade no Sudeste do Brasil

INTRODUÇÃO: Há indícios de que a deterioração das condições de trabalho ocorrida em anos recentes influencie a mortalidade. O objetivo do estudo é estimar indicadores de mortalidade para a população de Botucatu, classificada de acordo com as ocupações exercidas. MÉTODO: Foram calculados os indicadores coeficiente de mortalidade padronizado (CMP), razão de risco padronizada e anos potenciais de vida perdidos (APVP) para a população de Botucatu, em 1997, segundo ocupações e causas básicas do óbito. RESULTADOS: Os indicadores CMP e APVP variaram entre 0,6 e 39,9 óbitos/1000 trabalhadores e entre 33 e 334 anos/1000 trabalhadores, respectivamente, de acordo com a ocupação principal exercida. Observou-se que a ordenação quantitativa das causas de óbito depende da ocupação e do indicador utilizado. CONCLUSÕES: Os indicadores de mortalidade verificados apresentam uma grande heterogeneidade quando analisados de acordo com ocupação e causas básicas de óbito, refletindo a enorme desigualdade social existente na população estudada.

Unilateral Facial Paralysis Caused by Ramsay Hunt Syndrome

The Ramsay Hunt syndrome is a rare disease caused by an infection of the geniculate ganglion by the varicella-zoster virus. The main clinical features of the syndrome are as follows: Bell palsy unilateral or bilateral, vesicular eruptions on the ears, ear pain, dizziness, preauricular swelling, tingling, tearing, loss of taste sensation, and nystagmus. We describe a 23-year-old white woman, who presented with facial paralysis on the left side of the face, pain, fever, ear pain, and swelling in the neck and auricular region on the left side. She received appropriate treatment with acyclovir, vitamin B complex, and CMP nucleus. After 30 days after presentation, the patient did not show any signs or symptoms of the syndrome. At follow-up at 1 year, she showed no relapse of the syndrome.

Detection of DNA Nucleotides on Pretreated Boron Doped Diamond Electrodes

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)