On the degradation mechanisms under the influence of pedological factors through the study of archeological bronze patina

This experimental thesis concerns the study of the long-term behaviour of ancient bronzes recently excavated from burial conditions. The scientific interest is to clarify the effect of soil parameters on the degradation mechanisms of ancient bronze alloy. The work took into consideration bronzes recovered from the archaeological sites in the region of Dobrudja, Romania. The first part of research work was dedicated to the characterization of bronze artefacts using non destructive (micro-FTIR, reflectance mode) and micro-destructive (based on sampling and analysis of a stratigraphical section by OM and SEM-EDX) methods. Burial soils were geologically classified and analyzed by chemical methods (pH, conductivity, anions content). Most of objects analyzed showed a coarse and inhomogeneous corroded structure, often made up of several corrosion layers. This has been explained by the silt nature of soils, which contain low amount of clay and are, therefore, quite accessible to water and air. The main cause of a high dissolution rate of bronze alloys is the alternate water saturation and instauration of the soil, for example on a seasonal scale. Moreover, due to the vicinity of the Black Sea, the detrimental effect of chlorine has been evidenced for few objects, which were affected by the bronze disease. A general classification of corrosion layers was achieved by comparing values of the ratio Cu/Sn in the alloy and in the patina. Decuprification is a general trend, and enrichment of copper within the corrosion layers, due to the formation of thick layers of cuprite (Cu2O), is pointed out as well. Uncommon corrosion products and degradation patterns were presented as well, and they are probably due to peculiar local conditions taking place during the burial time, such as anaerobic conditions or fluctuating environmental conditions. In order to acquire a better insight into the corrosion mechanisms, the second part of the thesis has regarded simulation experiments, which were conducted on commercial Cu-Sn alloys, whose composition resembles those of ancient artefacts one. Electrochemical measurements were conducted in natural electrolytes, such as solutions extracted from natural soil (sampled at the archaeological sites) and seawater. Cyclic potentiodynamic experiments allowed appreciating the mechanism of corrosion in both cases. Soil extract’s electrolyte has been evaluated being a non aggressive medium, while artificial solution prepared by increasing the concentration of anions caused the pitting corrosion of the alloy, which is demonstrated by optical observations. In particular, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy allows assessing qualitatively the nature of corroded structures formed in soil and seawater. A double-structured layer is proposed, which differ, in the two cases, for the nature of the internal passive layer, which result defectiveness and porous in case of seawater.

Synthese und Charakterisierung von Oxidchalkogeniden und Bronzen für die Nanostrukturierung

Ausgehend von der Entdeckung der reversiblen Strukturierung mittels Rastersondenmethoden im Phasensystem Na2O/V2O5/P2O5 wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit zwei Ansatzpunkte verfolgt. Einerseits sollten mittels der Schmelzflußelektrolyse einige bereits existierende niederdimensionale Molybdänbronzen mit bekannten elektronischen Übergängen in ausreichend großen Kristallen gezüchtet werden, um sie auf ihre Strukturierungseigenschaften hin zu untersuchen. Gleichzeitig sollte durch Variation versucht werden, neue, bisher unbekannte Bronzen oder reduzierte Oxide zu synthetisieren und charakterisieren. Der zweite Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit lag in der Synthese und Charakterisierung von Oxidchalkogeniden, bestehend aus einem Seltenerdmetall und einem 3d-Metall von Titan bis hin zu den mittleren Übergangsmetallen. Diese Verbindungen können durch die Kombination der jeweiligen Eigenschaften der oxidischen und chalkogeniden Teilstrukturen völlig neue elektronische und/oder magnetische Eigenschaften aufweisen. Mögliche auftretende Phasenübergänge sind wiederum für Strukturierungsversuche interessant. Die zu den Oxidchalkogeniden durchgeführten Untersuchungen ergaben im Phasensystem Ln/Ti/S/O (Ln = Lanthanoide) insgesamt sechs Verbindungen. Zwei von ihnen, La8Ti9S24O4 und Nd20Ti11S44O6, besitzen als gemeinsames Strukturelement tetranukleare [Ti4(u4-S)2(u2-O)4]-Cluster, bestehend aus vier miteinander über gemeinsame Flächen kondensierte TiS4O2-Oktaeder. Die Titanpositionen innerhalb der Cluster sind mit Ti+3-Ionen besetzt. Beide Verbindungen weisen in einem Temperaturbereich zwischen 150 K und 250 K eine deutlich ausgeprägte Hysterese der magnetischen Suszeptibilität auf, die sich im Falle von La8Ti9S24O4 auf einen Jahn-Teller-Übergang zurückführen läßt. Daneben konnte erstmals eine Serie oxidisch/sulfidisch gemischter Ruddlesden-Popper-Verbindungen mit Ln2Ti2S2O5 (Ln = Pr, Nd, Sm) synthetisiert und charakterisiert werden. Titan liegt als vierwertiges Ion in aus TiSO5-Oktaedern gebildeten Perowskit-Doppelschichten vor. Die neunfach koordinierten Positionen sind mit den Seltenerdmetallionen gefüllt, die zwölffach koordinierten Lagen sind unbesetzt. Bei dem sechsten erhaltene Titanoxidsulfid, La4TiS6.5O1.5, handelt es sich um einen Halbleiter mit einer Bandlücke von etwa 2 eV. Weiterhin gelang es, die Serie Ln2M3S2O8 (Ln = La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm; M = Nb, Ta) zu synthetisieren und in ihren physikalischen Eigenschaften zu charakterisieren. Es handelt sich ausnahmslos um Halbleiter mit Bandlücken zwischen E=0.125 eV für La2Nb3S2O8 und E=0.222 eV für Pr2Ta3S2O8. Die Struktur der Oxidsulfide Ce2Ta3S2O8, Pr2Ta3S2O8, Nd2Nb3S2O8 sowie Sm2Ta3S2O8 weist im Gegensatz zu den anderen Verbindungen eine Fehlordnung eines der beiden kristallographisch unabhängigen Nb- bzw. Ta-Atome auf. Daraus resultiert eine Symmetrieerniedrigung von Pnma zu Pbam. Der Einsatz von Europium führte zu einer neuen Modifikation des bronzoiden Oxids EuTa2O6, in der das Europium als Eu+2 vorliegt, wie 151Eu-Mößbauer-Untersuchungen bestätigten. Vor der Durchführung der Kristallzüchtungen mittels der Schmelzflußelektrolysen mußten die benutzen Öfen und Elektrolysezellen geplant und angefertigt werden. Es konnten dann verschiedene blaue, rote und violette Moybdänbronzen (sowie La2Mo2O7) in Kristallen bis zu 25 mm Länge dargestellt werden. Ferner gelang die erste exakte Einkristalluntersuchung der roten Bronze Rb0.33MoO3. Sie verfügt über die höchste d-Elektronen-Lokalisierungsrate aller bekannten roten Bronzen. Die erhaltenen Bronzen wurden teilweise von der Arbeitsgruppe Fuchs, Physikalisches Institut der Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität Münster, auf ihre Nanostrukturierbarkeit hin untersucht. Dabei ergaben sich zwei verschiedene Strukturierungsmechanismen. Sind es im Fall der blauen Alkalimetall-Molybdänbronzen ausschließlich Lochstrukturen, die entstehen, handelt es sich bei La2Mo2O7 um Hügelstrukturen. Mittels der Schmelzflußelektrolyse konnte auch das gemischtvalente Alkalimetall-Eisenmolybdat NaFe2(MoO4)3 synthetisiert werden. Daneben gelang die Synthese dreier weiterer Alkalimetall-Eisenmolybdate: Cs2Fe2(MoO4)3, NaFe4(MoO4)5 und CsFe5(MoO4)7. Bis auf Cs2Fe2(MoO4)3, welches in der bekannten Langbeinit-Struktur kristallisiert, handelt es sich bei den übrigen Alkalimetall-Eisenmolybdaten um völlig neuartige Käfigverbindungen, bzw. bei CsFe5(MoO4)7 um eine Tunnelverbindung. Die Kristallstrukturen beinhalten kondensierte FeO6-Oktaeder. Im Fall von NaFe2(MoO4)3 lassen sich [Fe2O10]-Einheiten, für NaFe4(MoO4)5 [Fe2O10]- sowie [Fe3O14]-Einheiten, und für CsFe5(MoO4)7 [Fe4O18]-Baueinheiten beobachten. Die Positionen der Fe+2- und Fe+3-Atome in NaFe4(MoO4)5 wurden mit Hilfe einer 57Fe-Mößbauer-Untersuchung bestimmt.

Outdoor bronze conservation: assessment of protective treatments by accelerated aging and of treatment removal procedures by laser cleaning

Outdoor bronzes exposed to the environment form naturally a layer called patina, which may be able to protect the metallic substrate. However, since the last century, with the appearance of acid rains, a strong change in the nature and properties of the copper based patinas occurred [1]. Studies and general observations have established that bronze corrosion patinas created by acid rain are not only disfiguring in terms of loss of detail and homogeneity, but are also unstable [2]. The unstable patina is partially leached away by rainwater. This leaching is represented by green streaking on bronze monuments [3]. Because of the instability of the patina, conservation techniques are usually required. On a bronze object exposed to the outdoor environment, there are different actions of the rainfall and other atmospheric agents as a function of the monument shape. In fact, we recognize sheltered and unsheltered areas as regards exposure to rainwater [4]. As a consequence of these different actions, two main patina types are formed on monuments exposed to the outdoor environment. These patinas have different electrochemical, morphological and compositional characteristics [1]. In the case of sheltered areas, the patina contains mainly copper products, stratified above a layer strongly enriched in insoluble Sn oxides, located at the interface with the uncorroded metal. Moreover, different colors of the patina result from the exposure geometry. The surface color may be pale green for unsheltered areas, and green and mat black for sheltered areas [4]. Thus, in real outdoor bronze monuments, the corrosion behavior is strongly influenced by the exposure geometry. This must be taken into account when designing conservation procedures, since the patina is in most cases the support on which corrosion inhibitors are applied. Presently, for protecting outdoor bronzes against atmospheric corrosion, inhibitors and protective treatments are used. BTA and its derivatives, which are the most common inhibitors used for copper and its alloy, were found to be toxic for the environment and human health [5, 6]. Moreover, it has been demonstrated that BTA is efficient when applied on bare copper but not as efficient when applied on bare bronze [7]. Thus it was necessary to find alternative compounds. Silane-based inhibitors (already successfully tested on copper and other metallic substrates [8]), were taken into consideration as a non-toxic, environmentally friendly alternative to BTA derivatives for bronze protection. The purpose of this thesis was based on the assessment of the efficiency of a selected compound, to protect the bronze against corrosion, which is the 3-mercapto-propyl-trimethoxy-silane (PropS-SH). It was selected thanks to the collaboration with the Corrosion Studies Centre “Aldo Daccò” at the Università di Ferrara. Since previous studies [9, 10, 11] demonstrated that the addition of nanoparticles to silane-based inhibitors leads to an increase of the protective efficiency, we also wanted to evaluate the influence of the addition of CeO2, La2O3, TiO2 nanoparticles on the protective efficiency of 3-mercapto-propyl-trimethoxy-silane, applied on pre-patinated bronze surfaces. This study is the first section of the thesis. Since restorers have to work on patinated bronzes and not on bare metal (except for contemporary art), it is important to be able to recreate the patina, under laboratory conditions, either in sheltered or unsheltered conditions to test the coating and to obtain reliable results. Therefore, at the University of Bologna, different devices have been designed to simulate the real outdoor conditions and to create a patina which is representative of real application conditions of inhibitor or protective treatments. In particular, accelerated ageing devices by wet & dry (simulating the action of stagnant rain in sheltered areas [12]) and by dropping (simulating the leaching action of the rain in unsheltered areas [1]) tests were used. In the present work, we used the dropping test as a method to produce pre-patinated bronze surfaces for the application of a candidate inhibitor as well as for evaluating its protective efficiency on aged bronze (unsheltered areas). In this thesis, gilded bronzes were also studied. When they are exposed to the outside environment, a corrosion phenomenon appears which is due to the electrochemical couple gold/copper where copper is the anode. In the presence of an electrolyte, this phenomenon results in the formation of corrosion products than will cause a blistering of the gold (or a break-up and loss of the film in some cases). Moreover, because of the diffusion of the copper salts to the surface, aggregates and a greenish film will be formed on the surface of the sample [13]. By coating gilded samples with PropS-SH and PropS-SH containing nano-particles and carrying out accelerated ageing by the dropping test, a discussion is possible on the effectiveness of this coating, either with nano-particles or not, against the corrosion process. This part is the section 2 of this thesis. Finally, a discussion about laser treatment aiming at the assessment of reversibility/re-applicability of the PropS-SH coating can be found in section 3 of this thesis. Because the protective layer loses its efficiency with time, it is necessary to find a way of removing the silane layer, before applying a new one on the “bare” patina. One request is to minimize the damages that a laser treatment would create on the patina. Therefore, different laser fluences (energy/surface) were applied on the sample surface during the treatment process in order to find the best range of fluence. In particular, we made a characterization of surfaces before and after removal of PropS-SH (applied on a naturally patinated surface, and subsequently aged by natural exposure) with laser methods. The laser removal treatment was done by the CNR Institute of Applied Physics “Nello Carrara” of Sesto Fiorentino in Florence. In all the three sections of the thesis, a range of non-destructive spectroscopic methods (Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), μ-Raman spectroscopy, X-Ray diffractometry (XRD)) were used for characterizing the corroded surfaces. AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy) was used to analyze the ageing solutions from the dropping test in sections 1 and 2.

I manufatti egizi ed egittizzanti in Sicilia

Il progetto di ricerca si è posto l'obiettivo di analizzare una serie di manufatti egizî e di tradizione egizia della Sicilia preromana e di evidenziare le eventuali sopravvivenze della cultura egittizzante sull’isola fino all'età tardoantica. La realizzazione di un corpus, aggiornato sulla scorta di nuovi rinvenimenti, di recenti riletture e di studi su materiali inediti custoditi nei musei siciliani, ha contribuito a tracciare una mappa distributiva delle aree di rinvenimento e di attestazione, con particolare riferimento alle diverse etnie che recepiscono tali prodotti e alla possibilità di ricostruire l’ambientazione storica della domanda diretta o indiretta. Si è scelto di privilegiare lo studio tipologico, iconografico e iconologico di alcune “categorie” di materiali maggiormente documentati sull’isola, quali amuleti, scarabei e scaraboidi, cretule, ushabti, gioielli, bronzi figurati, gemme, con l’individuazione di riscontri in ambito mediterraneo. La documentazione delle testimonianze antiquarie contenenti notizie su reperti oggi non più reperibili ha permesso, infine, non solo l’acquisizione d’informazioni spesso ritenute perse, ma anche una comprensione storicizzata delle dinamiche del collezionismo siciliano e del suo ruolo nel più vasto ambito europeo dal XVII al XIX secolo. È stato importante, infatti, chiarire anche alcuni aspetti della cultura egittologica del periodo, legata in genere alla circolazione di stereotipi e alla mancanza di una conoscenza diretta della realtà faraonica.

Glycerol oxidehydration to acrylic acid on complex mixed-metal oxides

The project of this Ph.D. thesis is based on a co-supervised collaboration between Università di Bologna, ALMA MATER STUDIORUM (Italy) and Instituto de Tecnología Química, Universitat Politècnica de València ITQ-UPV (Spain). This Ph.D. thesis is about the synthesis, characterization and catalytic testing of complex mixed-oxide catalysts mainly related to the family of Hexagonal Tungsten Bronzes (HTBs). These materials have been little explored as catalysts, although they have a great potential as multifunctional materials. Their peculiar acid properties can be coupled to other functionalities (e.g. redox sites) by isomorphous substitution of tungsten atoms with other transition metals such as vanadium, niobium and molybdenum. In this PhD thesis, it was demonstrated how it is possible to prepare substituted-HTBs by hydrothermal synthesis; these mixed-oxide were fully characterize by a number of physicochemical techniques such as XPS, HR-TEM, XAS etc. They were also used as catalysts for the one-pot glycerol oxidehydration to acrylic acid; this reaction might represent a viable chemical route to solve the important issue related to the co-production of glycerin along the biodiesel production chain. Acrylic acid yields as high as 51% were obtained and important structure-reactivity correlations were proved to govern the catalytic performance; only fine tuning of acid and redox properties as well as the in-framework presence of vanadium are fundamental to achieve noteworthy yields into the acid monomer. The overall results reported herein might represent an important contribution for future applications of HTBs in catalysis as well as a general guideline for a multifaceted approach for their physicochemical characterization.

Gilded bronze conservation: assessment of protective treatments by accelerated ageing and of treatment removal procedures by laser cleaning

In the current study, we analyze the effectiveness of an organosilane compound, 3-mercapto-propyl-tri-methoxy-silane (abbreviated PropS-SH), in the corrosion protection of fire-gilded bronzes. Firstly, the coating was applied on as-gilded bronze. Subsequently, it was also applied on pre-patinated bronze, because the substrate on which protective coatings are applied in real conservation interventions are corroded artifacts (cleaning procedures never remove all the corrosion products). Aiming to obtain results that simulate the situation of real artifacts, a dropping test that simulates outdoor exposure in runoff conditions (unsheltered areas of monuments) was employed in order to prepatinate the gilded bronze samples, which are the substrate for applying the protective coating. The preparation of the samples by applying the protective coating was performed in collaboration with the Corrosion Studies Centre “Aldo Daccò” from Ferrara University. After the artificial exposure cycles the samples underwent investigations through a variety of spectroscopic methods including SEM, Raman, FIB, AAS and color measurements. In order to evaluate the possible removal of the organosilane coating, protected samples were subjected to laser cleaning tests and characterized by SEM/EDS so as to assess the changes in composition and morphology of the treated surfaces. The laser cleaning treatment was performed at the Institute of Applied Physics “Nello Carrara” (CNR Sesto Fiorentino (FI)). The morphology and chemical composition of the samples was observed before and after the operation in order to obtain information about the fluence and type of laser which are best suited to the removal of this type of coating.

Shōbikai.

Kaisoku oyobi kaishu Yamasaki Wasen seisakuhin mokuroku.

Fu zhai cang gu yu yin /

Reproduced from original ms.

Antike bronzestatuetten,

Mode of access: Internet.

Les Arts de l'ameublement ... ,

[Les dates d'édition ont été rétables d'apres le catalogue de la Bibliothèque Nationale]

Les céramiques de la Grèce propre,

t. 1. Histoire de la # des vases grece.--t. 2. Melanges archeologiques.

Antiquités d'Herculanum /

Includes index.

Traditions of the Osage /

Microform.

Sui quattro cavalli della basilica di S. Marco in Venezia;

Cicognara,

Description d'une anse de vase en bronze, ornée de bas-reliefs, découverte en 1811 dans les ruines de Nasium;

In the title of the front. the handle is called Anse de Praeféricule.