An experimental analysis of body checking

The relationship between repeated body checking and its impact on body size estimation and body dissatisfaction is of interest for two reasons. First, it has importance in theoretical accounts of the maintenance of eating disorders and, second, body checking is targeted in cognitive-behavioural treatment. The aim of this study was to determine the impact of manipulating body checking on body size estimation and body dissatisfaction. Sixty women were randomly assigned either to repeatedly scrutinize their bodies in a critical way in the mirror ("high body checking") or to refrain from body checking but to examine the whole of their bodies in a neutral way ("low body checking"). Body dissatisfaction, feelings of fatness and the strength of a particular self-critical thought increased immediately after the manipulation among those in the high body checking condition. Feelings of fatness decreased among those in the low body checking condition. These changes were short-lived. The manipulation did not effect estimations of body size or the discrepancy between estimations of body size and desired body size. The implications of these findings for understanding the influence of body checking on the maintenance of body dissatisfaction are considered. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Body image, strategies to change muscles and weight, and puberty. Do they impact on positive and negative affect among adolescent boys and girls?

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of strategies to both decrease weight and increase muscle tone on negative (depression, anxiety) and positive affect among adolescent males and females. The respondents were 1185 adolescents (587 males, 598 females) who were enrolled in grades 7 and 9 (mean age for MALES=13.22 years; mean age for FEMALES=13.21 years). Respondents completed the Body Image and Body Change Inventory that assessed body image satisfaction, body image importance, body change strategies to decrease weight, body change strategies to increase muscle tone, and food supplements. Respondents also completed the Pubertal Development Scale, the depression and anxiety scales of the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale, and the positive affect items from the Positive and Negative Affect Scale. Structural equation modelling was used to determine how body satisfaction and importance, body change strategies, and puberty impacted on depression, anxiety, and positive affect. The results demonstrated that for both boys and girls, there was a strong association between body change strategies and negative affect. For boys, body dissatisfaction did not predict negative affect, although this was a strong predictor for girls. Body change strategies did not strongly predict positive affect for either boys or girls, although body image satisfaction was a strong predictor for both genders. The implications of these findings for obtaining a better understanding of the role of pubertal development, body image, and body change strategies in predicting positive and negative affect among adolescent males and females are discussed.

Parent, peer and media influences on body image and strategies to both increase and decrease body size among adolescent boys and girls

This study investigated the nature of body image and body change strategies, as well as the sociocultural influences on these variables, among a group of 1,266 adolescents (622 males, 644 females). In particular, it investigated weight gain and increased muscle, as well as weight loss. It was found that females were less satisfied with their bodies and were more likely to adopt strategies to lose weight, whereas males were more likely to adopt strategies to increase weight and muscle tone. Respondents with higher body mass index (BMI) evidenced greater body dissatisfaction and more weight loss strategies, but there were no differences between BMI groups in weight gain or strategies to increase muscles. Weight gain and strategies to increase muscles were more likely to be undertaken by older adolescents, but there were no grade level differences in weight loss. Media influences to alter weight, as well as feedback from mother, father, and both male and female peers, were greater for females. There were few grade level or BMI differences in regard to any of the sociocultural influences. The importance of these findings in terms of providing a better understanding of factors which may lead to a disturbed body image and body change disorders, particularly among adolescent boys, is discussed.

Similarities in body image in sisters: the role of sociocultural internalization and social comparison

The sociocultural theory of body image disturbance states that Western women experience pressure from sources such as parents, peers, and the media to maintain thinness. Social comparison theory emphasises the role of comparing one's appearance to others. Body image disturbance; awareness and Internalization of sociocultural messages regarding thinness; and sibling social comparisons were examined in 41 closest-in-age sisters through self-report questionnaires. Sisters showed similar levels of body image disturbance and sociocultural awareness and internalization. Sibling comparisons were negative for younger sisters but neutral or positive for older sisters. Sociocultural internalization predicted body dissatisfaction in both sisters, and body size distortion in younger sisters. Negative sibling comparisons during teenage years predicted body size distortion and body dissatisfaction in younger sisters, and preference for thinness in older sisters.

A biopsychosocial model for understanding body image and body change strategies among children

The present study was designed to assess the role of biopsychosocial factors in understanding body image concerns and cognitions and behaviors related to losing weight or increasing muscles among 507 children (270 girls and 237 boys) aged between 8 and 11 years. Biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors have been found to be relevant in understanding the development of body image concerns and weight loss strategies among children. However, these factors have not been examined together in a single study; thus, the relative influence of each factors and how these factors may interact is not known. In the current study, body mass index (BMI) was found to be a good indicator of girls' and boys' body dissatisfaction, while the main indicator of children's body change strategies was perceived pressure from parents, peers, and the media. Overall, there were more similarities than differences between girls and boys. The age between 8 and 11 years is a significant period to commence studying body image concerns and body change strategies, as it can be used to help us understand the emergence of gender differences in children's weight and muscle concerns.

Body image and strategies to lose weight and increase muscle among boys and girls

This study examined factors that influence body image and strategies to either lose weight or increase muscle among children. Participants were 237 boys and 270 girls. Body mass index (BMI), body dissatisfaction, cognitions and behaviors to both lose weight and increase muscles, as well as self-esteem and positive and negative affect, were evaluated. Self-esteem was associated with body satisfaction, positive affect predicted strategies to lose weight and increase muscles, and negative affect predicted body dissatisfaction and cognitions to lose weight and increase muscles. Boys were more likely to focus on changing muscles. Respondents with higher BMIs were more focused on losing weight but not muscle. The discussion focuses on health risk behaviors related to eating and exercise among children.

Sociocultural influences on body image concerns and body change strategies among Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Australian adolescent girls and boys

Sociocultural messages about the ideal body build have been studied predominantlyamong White adolescent girls. In the current study we examined the relationships between perceived sociocultural influences, body image concerns, and body change strategies among 47 (22 boys and 25 girls) Indigenous Australian adolescents. These relationships were compared to those from 47 non-Indigenous adolescents (predominantly from an Anglo-Saxon background), who were matched on gender, age, and school grade. Overall, the sociocultural influences were found to be associated with body image concerns and body change strategies among both cultural groups. The only exception was that the sociocultural influences were not associated with the Indigenous girls levels of body dissatisfaction or body image importance. These findings are discussed in relation to past studies of White and Black girls.

Body image attitudes and concerns among indigenous Fijian and European Australian adolescent girls

Research on body image has primarily been conducted among Western women who highly value the thin ideal body size. There has been limited research that has examined body image attitudes among Fijian adolescent girls who are exposed to both traditional sociocultural pressures that promote a larger body size and Western pressures that promote slimness. Using in-depth semi-structured interviews, we examined the factors associated with body image attitudes and concerns among a sample of 16 indigenous Fijian and 16 European Australian adolescent girls aged between 13–18 years. An inductive analysis of girls’ responses indicated that both groups of girls experienced body image concerns including body dissatisfaction, a preference for thinness and concerns associated with weight gain. These findings have implications for our understanding of the role of culture in shaping body image among girls and may prove useful in the development of future survey research that can be implemented among both Fijian and Western adolescents.

Evaluation of a prevention program to address body focus and negative affect among children

The current study evaluated a program to improve the body image and positive and negative affect of children. Participants were 368 children aged 8–12 years. The results demonstrated that boys placed more importance on and were less satisfied with their muscles; girls were less satisfied with their weight and the importance of weight increased with increasing age. Children with a large BMI were less satisfied with their weight. Boys in the intervention group showed reduced levels of negative affect over time. Further research is required to develop prevention and intervention programs to lower the effects of body dissatisfaction and negative affect among children.

Reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST) and body change behaviour in males

According to the unrevised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory two motivational systems shape personality: a behavioural approach system (BAS) that determines sensitivity to rewards, and a behavioural inhibition system (BIS) that determines sensitivity to punishments. The role of reinforcement sensitivity in body change behaviour in males was explored with a non-clinical sample of 120 men aged 18–40 years. Self-reported symptoms of unhealthy weight loss (weight preoccupation, fasting, bingeing/purging) and body development (muscle/size preoccupation, obligatory exercise, use of chemical supplements) were regressed on measures of BAS and BIS sensitivity. Significant relationships were observed between BAS sensitivity and body development, and between BIS sensitivity and weight loss. These relationships were mediated by internalization of the athletic/muscular ideal, body comparisons, the importance of achieving one’s ideal or ‘best possible’ body (in the case of BAS but not BIS), and body dissatisfaction (in the case of BIS but not BAS). These results support the proposition that body development in males is influenced by sensitivity to rewards associated with achieving a certain body shape, and that weight loss is influenced by sensitivity to punishments associated with possessing an unsatisfactory body shape.

Motivational processes associated with unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviours

Objective
The relationship between approach–avoidance motivational processes and unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviours was investigated.
Method
Self-reported sensitivity to rewards (SR) and sensitivity to punishments (SP) were measured for a convenience sample of 130 women, aged 18 to 40 years, along with measures of disordered eating symptomatology and exercise dependence.
Results
Together, SR and SP significantly predicted variance in drive for thinness (21%), bulimia (17%), and obligatory exercise (7%). These relationships were partly mediated by internalization of the thin ideal, body comparison, and subjective importance of achieving one's ‘ideal’ body and of avoiding one's ‘worst possible’ body. Interestingly, body dissatisfaction partly mediated the relationships involving SP but not SR.
Discussion
The results suggest that an underlying sensitivity to punishments, but not rewards, can manifest as a ‘fear of fatness’. Both of these motivational traits can increase the salience of self evaluations, and thus indirectly contribute to unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviours.

Emotional reactions following exposure to idealized bodies predict unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviors in women and men

Objective: We explored the extent to which changes in emotional states following exposure to images of idealized bodies predict unhealthy body change attitudes and behaviors in women and men, and whether particular psychological traits mediate these effects. Method: One hundred thirty-three women and 93 men were assessed for unhealthy attitudes and behaviors related to body weight and muscles using the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2), the Obligatory Exercise Questionnaire, and the strategies to increase muscles subscale of the Body Change Inventory. Psychological traits assessed included body dissatisfaction (EDI-2), internalization of the thin/athletic ideal (Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3), body comparison (Body Comparison Scale), self-esteem (Rosenberg Self-Esteem Inventory), depression (Beck Depression Inventory-II), and identity confusion (Self-Concept Clarity Scale). Participants were then exposed to photographs of thin female models and muscular male models, and visual analogue scales were used to measure changes in postexposure state body dissatisfaction, anger, anxiety, and depression.
Results: Postexposure increases in state anger, anxiety, depression, and body dissatisfaction correlated with drive for thinness and disordered eating symptomatology in women, while postexposure increases in state body dissatisfaction correlated with muscle development in men. Analyses revealed that internalization and body comparison mediated these relationships, with trait body dissatisfaction, trait depression, self-esteem, and self-concept/identity confusion serving as mediators for women only. Conclusion: These results are indicative of gender differences in: (a) reactions to idealized bodies; (b) psychological traits that predispose individuals to experience these reactions; and (c) types of body change behavior that are associated with these reactions.

A longitudinal study of body change strategies of fitness center attendees

This study evaluated predictors of strategies to change weight and muscles among men and women who attend fitness centers. A questionnaire was completed by 107 men (mean age = 39.17, SD = 13.14), and 151 women (mean age = 35.31, SD = 11.38) who regularly attended fitness centers at two points in time, one year apart. The only unique predictor of body change strategies over time for men was body dissatisfaction predicting drive for thinness; for women, body dissatisfaction predicted strategies to lose weight, drive for thinness, use of food supplements to lose weight and levels of bulimia. Media messages also predicted drive for thinness and bulimia among women. These findings would suggest that attendance body dissatisfaction is an important factor predicting other normative and health risk behaviors among fitness center attendees, particularly women at a fitness center over a 12 month period was not generally associated with adverse health risk behaviors.

Implications of accuracy, sensitivity, and variability of body size estimations to disordered eating

The current study was conducted to investigate the relationships between body size estimations and disordered eating symptomatology. The method of constant stimuli was used to derive three measures of self-perceived body size in 93 women: (1) accuracy of body size estimations (body image distortion); (2) sensitivity in discriminating body size within blocks of trials (body image sensitivity); and (3) variability in making body size estimations between blocks of trials (body image variability). Participants also completed measures of disordered eating. Although body image distortion correlated with dietary restraint and eating concern, body image variability accounted for additional variance in these variables, as well as variance in binge eating. The relationships involving body image variability were found to be mediated by body dissatisfaction and internalization of the thin ideal. Together, these results are consistent with the proposition that body image variability is a significant factor in disordered eating.